China and Chinese in 1771

China

China, including Chinese Tartary, is a large empire lying between about 95° and 135° east longitude, and between 21° and 55° north latitude. It is said to be about two thousand miles long and one thousand five hundred miles wide. It is bordered by Russian Tartary to the north, by the Pacific Ocean on the east and south, and by Tonquin, Tibet, and the territories of Russia on the west. It is usually divided into sixteen provinces, which are described in alphabetical order. In these provinces there are estimated to be one hundred and fifty-five capital cities, one thousand three hundred and twelve cities of the second rank, two thousand three hundred and fifty-seven fortified towns, and more than ten million families, amounting to about fifty million people.

The main products of this country are silk, tea, porcelain (often called China-ware), Japan-ware, and gold dust; and the maritime nations of Europe import large quantities of them, sending silver in return.

Encyclopædia Britannica, First Edition, Volume II (1771)

Chinese

It is observed by some, that the Chinese language has no analogy with any other language in the world: it only consists of three hundred and thirty words, which are all monosyllables, at least they are pronounced so short that there is no distinguishing above one syllable or sound in them; but the same word, as pronounced with stronger or weaker tone, has different significations; accordingly, when the language is accurately spoke, it makes a sort of music, which has a real melody, that constitutes the essence and distinguishing character of the Chinese tongue.

As to the Chinese characters, they are as singular as the language; the Chinese have not, like us, any alphabet, containing the elements, or, as it were, the principles of their words: instead of an alphabet they use a kind of hieroglyphics, whereof they have above eighty thousand.

As the Chinese pretend to an antiquity both with regard to their nation and arts, far beyond that of any other nation, it will not perhaps be unacceptable to give a short view of these pretensions, principally extracted from their own writers. But, when any thing is quoted from the Chinese history, it is absolutely necessary to attend, 1. To the times purely fabulous and mythological; 2. To the doubtful and uncertain times; and, 3. To the historical times, when the Chinese history, supported by indissputable monuments, begins to proceed on sure grounds.

Some ascribe to Tiene-hoang, a book in eight chapters, which contains the origin of letters. They add, that the characters used by the Sane hoang were natural, without any determinate form, that they were nothing but gold and precious stones.

Lieou-jou, author of Ouai-ki, says, that Tiene-hoang gave names to the ten KANE, and to the twelve TCHI, to determine the place of the year: this is meant of the cyclic characters.

Tiene-hoang signifies emperor of heaven. They also call him also Tiene ling, the intelligent heaven; Tsee jun, the son who nourishes and adorns all things; and finally Tchong-tiene-hoang-kune, the supreme king of the middle heaven, &c. This Tiene-hoang succeeded Pouane-cou.

The Ouai-ki says, that Ti-hoang (emperor of the earth), the successor of Tiene-hoang, divided the day and the night, and appointed thirty days to make one moon. The book Tong li, quoted in Lopi, adds further, that this emperor fixed the winter-solstice to the eleventh moon. A proof that the Chinese year was originally very incorrect, and that the course of it was regulated only by that of the seasons, is, that for a long time, to express a year, they said a change of the leaves.

This Ti-hoang, say they, was father of Tiene-hoang, and of Gine-hoang who follows.

They give Gine-hoang (sovereign of men) nine brothers, and pretend, that they divided the government among them. They were nine brothers (says Yuene-leoa-fane) who divided the earth among them, and built cities, which they surrounded with walls. It was under this prince (says Lopi), that there first began to be a distinction between the sovereign and the subject; they drank, they eat, and the two sexes united.

After these three emperors which we have just now named, they place the period named Ou-long (the five Long or dragons) composed of five different families. But they do not tell us their names, nor the duration of their reigns. In these times (says an author) men dwelt in the bottom of caves, or perched upon trees as it were in nests. This fact contradicts the invention of building cities, and surrounding them with walls, which they place under the reign of Gine-hoang; but we will meet with many such contradictions in the sequel.

They say nothing of the third Ki. Of the fourth, named Ho-lo, and composed of three families, they say, that the Ho-lo taught men to retire into the hollows of rocks. This is all they say of it. Neither do they say any thing of the fifth Ki, named Liene-tong, and composed of six families; of the sixth Ki, named Su-ming, and composed of four families.

It is a folly to dwell upon the epocha of these six Ki; nothing is more absurd. Lopi cites an author who generously gives them 1,100,750 years duration; Lopi says himself, that the five first Ki after Gine hoang make in all 90,000 years.

The seventh Ki is named Sune-fei, and comprehends twenty-two families. But they say nothing under all these reigns that has any relation to the arts or sciences. Only under the twenty-second and last, named Tsee-che-chi, they say, that it was not until then that men ceased to dwell in caves. Is it not a palpable absurdity that after so many ages, and under kings of whom they relate so many wonders, they had not yet found out the art of building huts to shelter them from the winds and rains!

The eighth Ki, named Yne-ti, contains thirteen families or dynasties. Tchine-fang-chi, the first of this period, reigned after Tsee-che-chi, and founded the first family. They say, that at the beginning men covered their bodies with leaves and herbs; serpents and beasts were very numerous; the waters which had overflowed were not yet returned into their channels; and the misery of mankind was extreme. Tchine-fang taught men to prepare skins, to take off the hair with rollers of wood, and use them against the winds and frost which incommoded them very much. He taught them also to make a kind of web of their hair, to serve them as a covering to their heads against the rain. They obeyed him with joy; he called his subjects people clothed with skins; he reigned 350 years. To Tchine-fang chi succeeded Chou-chane-chi, then Hai-kouei-chi, of whom they say nothing which has any relation to our subject.

The fourth prince, who also succeeded Hai-kouei-chi, was named Hoene-tune; he founded the fourth dynasty, (for each of these princes which we have just now mentioned, was the founder of a family or dynasty.) In the history of this king, Lopi quotes Lao-chene-tsee, who speaks thus:

“The ancient kings wore their hair dishevelled, without any ornament upon their heads. They had neither sceptre nor crown, and they governed their people in peace. Being of a beneficial disposition, they cherished all things, and put no person to death. Always giving, and never receiving any thing, their subjects, without dreading their power as masters, revered their virtue in their hearts. Then heaven and earth observed a most beautiful order, and every thing flourished in a surprising manner. The birds built their nests so low, that they might be reached with the hand; all the animal creation tamely submitted to the will of man. Then the just medium was observed, and harmony reigned over all. They did not reckon the year by the days. There was no distinction between within and without, between mine and thine. In this manner reigned Hoene-tune. But when mankind had degenerated from this happy state, birds and beasts, insects and serpents, all together, and as it were in concert, made war against them.”

To this dynasty of Hoene-tune, succeeded that of Tong-hou-chi, containing seven kings which are not named. To this fifth dynasty succeeded the sixth, whose founder was Hoang-tane-chi.

The 7th, the dynasty of Ki-tong-chi *.

The 8th, the dynasty of Ki-y-chi *. The 9th, the dynasty of Ki-kiu-chi *.

The 10th, the dynasty of Hi-ouei-chi *.

The 11th, the dynasty of Yeou-tsao-chi.

The 12th, the dynasty of Soui gine.

The 13th and last, the dynasty of Yong-tching-chi.

Of these seven kings, or founders of dynasties, which remain to be considered to complete the number of dynasties included in this eighth period, nothing is said of those marked * that has any relation to our subject.

As to Yeou-tsao-chi, founder of the eleventh dynasty, whose reign, say they, lasted more than 300 years, and whose family, they add, continued more than 100 generations during the space of 12 or 18,000 years: here is what we find recorded.

Hane-tsee says, that, in the first ages of the world, animals multiplied very fast; and that men being but few, they could not subdue the beasts and serpents.

Yene-tsee says also, that the ancients, either perched on trees, or stretched in hollow caves, possessed the universe, (Tiene-hia, that is to say, China). These good kings (continues he) breathed nothing but charity without any shadow of hatred. They gave much, and took nothing. The people did not go to pay their court to them, but all the world submitted to their virtues.

Lopi and Ouai-ki say almost in the same words, that, in the most remote antiquity, men sheltered themselves in the hollows of rocks, that they dwelt in deserts, and lived in society with all the other creatures. They had no thought of doing any injury to the beasts, and the beasts did not think of hurting them. But in the succeeding ages they became too wise, which made the animals rebel; armed with claws, teeth, horns, and venom, they assaulted man, and man was not able to resist them. Yeou tsao reigned then. He was the first who built houses of wood, in the form of birds nests; he persuaded men to retire into them to avoid the wild beasts. They did not know as yet how to cultivate the earth, they lived on herbs and fruits. They drank the blood of animals, they devoured their flesh quite raw, they swallowed the hair and the feathers. This is what they say of Yeou-tsao chi: after him comes Soui gine, founder of the 12th dynasty.

Soui-gine chi is esteemed the inventor of fire.

On the summit of the mountain Pou-tcheou, says an author, are to be seen the walls of Justice. The sun and the moon cannot approach them; there is no difference of seasons there, nor vicissitudes of days and nights. This is the kingdom of light on the confines of Si-ouang mou. A saint (a great man) went to make a tour beyond the bounds of the sun and moon: he beheld a tree, and upon that tree a bird, who made fire come out of it by picking it. He was surprised at this; he took a branch of this tree, and from thence struck fire; from whence they called this great personage Soui-gine.

Other authors say also, that Soui-gine made fire with a certain kind of wood, and taught men to dress their victuals. By this means all diseases, and all disorders of the stomach and bowels were prevented. In this he followed the direction of heaven, and from thence was named Soui-gine.

They say further, that, in the days of Soui-gine, there was much water upon the earth, and that this prince taught men the art of fishing. He must, of consequence, have invented nets or lines, which invention is after this ascribed to Fou-hi.

One Long-ma, or Dragon-horse, brought him a kind of table, and the tortoise letters. Soui-gine is the first to whom they apply this event, but the same thing will be said in the sequel of several others.

Soui-gine was the first who gave names to plants and animals; and these names (say they) were so expressive, that the nature of every thing was known by its name. He invented weights and measures for the regulation of commerce, which had been unknown before him.

Anciently (says an author) men married at fifty, and women at thirty years of age: Soui-gine shortened this period, and appointed that young men should marry at thirty, and girls at twenty.

Lastly, the Liki says, that it was Soui-gine who first taught men urbanity and politeness.

It now remains to speak of Yong-tching-chi, the founder of the thirteenth and last dynasty of this period.

In his time, they used slender cords on which they tied various knots, and this served them instead of writing. But, after the invention of letters, how could they return again to the use of these cords, which is so limited and imperfect? This evidently implies a contradiction?

We come now to the ninth Ki or period, named Chene-tong. This ninth period will bring us down to the times of Fou hi. It comprehends twenty-one kings, whose names are as follow:

1. Sse hoang, or Tsan hie, 12. Hiene-yuene,
2. Pe-hoang-chi, 13. He sou,
3. Tchong hoang-chi, 14. Kai-tiene,
4. Tai-ting-chi, 15. Tsune-liu chi,
5. Kouene liene, 16. Tcho jong,
6. Yene-chi, 17. Hao-yng,
7. Tai chi, 18. Yeou-tsao-chi
8. Tching-hoei-chi 19. Tchu-siang-chi,
9. Li lou, or Hoei-chi, 20. Yne khang-chi,
10. Sohoang chi, 21. Vou-hoai-chi.
11. Nuei-touane chi,
    

Liu-pou-ouei says plainly, that Sse-hoang made letters. This Sse-hoang, is called also Tsang hie. Some historians place him under Hoang-ti, whose minister they make him; while others make him a sovereign prince, and much anterior to Hoang-ti.

The first inventor of letters was Tsang-hie, then the king Vou-hoai made them be engraved on the coin, and Fou-hi used them in the public acts for the government of the empire. But observe, that these three emperors were even before Chini-nong; how can it be said then, that letters were not invented till under Hoang-ti? Such is the reasoning of Lopi, who was quite confounded with these fabulous times.

To this criticism it may be answered, You have told us, that letters had been invented in the reign of Soui-gine, the 12th king of the eighth period; how then can you pretend to give the honour of this invention to Tsang-hie, who, according to your own testimony, did not flourish till the ninth period? However this may be, Ssee-hoan (say some romancers) knew to form letters the moment he was born. He was endowed with great wisdom, &c. After he had received the Ho-tou, he visited the south, went upon mount Yang-yu, and stopped on the bank of the river Lo. A divine tortoise carrying blue letters upon his shell, delivered them to him: then Ssee-hoang penetrated all the changes of heaven and earth; above he observed the various configurations of the stars; below he examined all the marks he had seen upon the tortoise; he viewed the plumage of birds, he took notice of the mountains, and of the rivers which flow from them, and of all this he composed letters. Some very learned Chinese think, that this was the ancient kind of writing named Ko-teou-chu, which continued (say they) to the reign of the emperor Suene-ouang, that is, to the year 827 before J. C.

But Cong-yng-ta very well observes, that though the external figures of the letters have changed several times in some things, the six rules on which Tsang-hie formed them, have never suffered any change.

Then (continues Lopi) there was a difference between the sovereign and the subject, relation between the father and the son, distinction between the precious and the vile; laws appeared, rites and music reigned. Punishments were inflicted with vigour. Thus Ssee-hoang laid the foundations of good government, he appointed officers for each affair, the smallest did not escape him; and thus heaven and earth arrived at their full perfection.

They say nothing of the successor of Ssee-hoang which has any relation to our subject; but they say, that, under the reign of Tchong-hoang-chi, the third king of this period, they still used slender cords for writing.

From this prince we come at once to Hiene-yuene, the 12th in order of this period, because nothing is said of his predecessors.

We find a great many things under the reign of this prince, because he is the same with Hoang-ti, or at least they have confounded these two princes together.

They ascribe to Hiene-yuene the invention of cars. He joined two pieces of wood together, the one placed upright, and the other across, to the honour of the Most High. It is from this he is called Hiene yuene. The piece of wood placed across is called hiene, and that which is placed upright is called yuene. Hiene-yuene struck copper money, and made use of the balance to determine the weight of things. By this means he ruled the world in peace. Ho signifies merchandise in general. Formerly they wrote simply hoa, which signifies exchange. These merchandises (say they) consisted in metal, kine, in precious stones, yu, in ivory, tchi, in skins, pi, in coined money, tsuene, and in stuffs, pou, &c.

They then denominated money (as is done still) by the name of the reigning family. That of Hiene-yuene was one inch seven lines, and weighed twelve tchu, [the tchu is the 20th part of a yo, and a yo weighs 1200 little grains of millet]. They then ingraved letters on their money (as in still done at present). It is for this reason that ven tsee, letters, signifies also a piece of money, which is called likewise kini, and tsuene, and tao.

Tcho-jong (16th emperor of the 9th period) hearing, at Cane-tcheou, the singing of birds, composed a music of union, whose harmony penetrated everywhere, touched the intelligent spirit, and calmed the heart of man, in such a manner, that the external senses were sound, the humours in equilibrio, and the life very long. He called this music Tsie ouene, that is to say, temperance, grace, and beauty.

But the design, and in some sort the only aim of the ancient music of the Chinese, according to their authors, was the harmony of the virtues, the moderation of the passions, elegance of manners, and, in a word, every thing that can contribute to the perfection of a good and wise government, &c. For they were persuaded that music was capable of working all these miracles. It is difficult for us to believe them in this, especially when we consider the music which is at present used among them. But we appeal to the Greeks, who related as astonishing effects from this agreeable invention, whilst the modern Greeks, like most part of the Orientals, have no music but a wretched and contemptible monotony.

The 17th king of the 9th period is named Hao-yng. In his time they cut down the branches of trees to kill beasts with. Men were few. Nothing but vast forests were every where to be seen, and these frightful woods were filled with wild beasts. How contradictory is this, and how incompatible with the times in which this prince is said to have reigned!

The 18th king of the 9th period is called Yeou-tsao-chi. We have seen in the preceeding period, a prince of the same name. The Ouai-ki places this king at the beginning of the last ki, and gives him for successor Soui-gine. At this rate, nine entire periods, or ki, must have elapsed before men knew how to build huts, or had the use of fire. Lopi follows another method: he has ranged Yeou-tsao-chi and Soui-gine in the preceeding period; and although the king we are now speaking of bears the same name, he speaks of him quite differently.

The 19th king of the 9th period is named Tchu-siang-chi.

They say, that he commanded Ssee-kouei to make a kind of guitar with five strings named se, to remedy the disorders of the universe, and preserve every thing that had life.

The 20th king of the 9th period is named Yne-khang-chi.

In his time, the waters did not flow, the rivers did not pursue their usual course, which occasioned a great number of diseases.

Yne-khang instituted the dances called Ta-vou (grand dances), with a view to preserve health: for, as Lopi says, when the body is not in motion, the humours have not a free course; matter is amassed in some part, from whence come diseases, which all proceed from some obstruction.

The Chinese also imagine, that a man’s virtues may be known by his manner of touching the lute and drawing the bow, &c.

Thus the Chinese make dances as well as music have a reference to good government; and the Liki say, that we may judge of a reign by the dances which are used in it.

The 21st and last king of the 9th period is named Vou hoai-chi; but they relate nothing of this prince which is worthy of notice.

This is all that the fabulous times contain. If these times cannot enable us to fix the real epocha of various inventions, (as the Chinese are so full of contradictions about the time of these different discoveries), we see at least from them, that the origin of arts has been much the same among them as among other nations. We are now come down to Fou-hi, who is considered by the Chinese historians as the founder of their monarchy. What they say of this prince and his successors, has some more solidity in it than what we have hitherto seen.

FOU-HI.

The Ouai ki, quoted in the Chinese annals, thus describes the manners of mankind in these days, “In the beginning, men differed nothing from other animals in their way of life. As they wandered up and down in the woods, and women were in common, it happened that children never knew their fathers, but only their mothers. They abandoned themselves to lust without shame, and had not the least idea of the laws of decency. They thought of nothing but sleeping and snoring, and then getting up and yawning. When hunger pressed them, they fought for something to eat; and when they were glutted, they threw the rest away. They eat the very feathers and hair of animals, and drank their blood. They clothed themselves with skins quite hairy. The emperor Fou-hi began by teaching them to make lines for catching fish, and snares for taking birds. It was for this, that this prince was named Fou hi-chi. He taught them further to feed domestic animals, and to fatten them for slaughter; for which they gave him the sirname of Poa-hi-chi.”

It seems evident, that the ancient Chinese had at first no other habitation than caves, the hollows of rocks, and natural dens. They were then infected with a kind of insect or reptile called iang; and when they met, they asked one another, Are you troubled with iangs? To this day they make use of this expression, in asking after any person’s health: Couéi-iang? What disease have you? How do you do? Vou-iang. I am without iang; that is to say, I am hearty, in perfect health, without any ailment.

It would be superfluous to relate here, what the Chinese say, in their annals, of the invention of characters, and of coua, after what hath been said by F. Couplet and so many others on that subject. We shall only add, that the treatise Hit-see bears, that, at the beginning nations were governed by means of certain knots which they made on slender cords: that afterwards the saint introduced writing in their place, to assist the mandarins in performing all their offices, and the people in examining their conduct; and that it was by the symbol ⁠
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⁠ Kouai, that he conducted himself in the execution of his work.

Lopi, whom we have so often quoted already, says, that Fou-hi extracted from the symbol of six lines every thing that concerned good government. For example, ⁠
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⁠ Li gave him the hint of making lines for hunting and fishing, and these lines were a new occasion of inventing stuffs for garments. Lopi adds, that it is a mistake to imagine, that, in the times of Fou-hi, they still used cords tied and knotted, and that books were not introduced till under Hoang-ti.

Fou-hi taught men to rear the six domestic animals, not only for food, but also for victims, in the sacrifices which they offered to Chine, and to Ki. They pretend that Fou-hi regulated the rites Kiao-chene.

Fou-hi also instituted marriage: before this the intercourse of the sexes was indiscriminate; he settled the ceremonies with which marriages were to be contracted, in order to render this great foundation of society respectable. He commanded the women to wear a different dress from that of the men, and prohibited a man’s marrying a woman of the same name, whether a relation or not, a law which is actually still in force.

Fou-hi appointed several ministers and officers to assit him in the government of the empire.

One of these officers made the letters, another drew up the calendar, a third built the houses, a fourth practised medicine, a fifth cultivated the ground, a sixth was the master of the woods and waters.

They pretend that Fou-hi applied himself to astronomy. The Tcheou-pi souane says, that he divided the heavens into degrees, Lopi takes notice, that properly the heavens have no degrees, but that this term is used with relation to the path of the sun in the course of a year.

The period of sixty years is reckoned due to Fou-hi. The Tsiene-piene says plainly, that this prince made a calendar to us the year, and that he is the author of Kia-tse. The Sane-fene says the same thing; and the Hane-li-tchi says, that Fou-hi made the first calendar by the Kia-tse; but the Chi-pene ascribes this to Hoang-ti. This is one of these contradictions so common in the Chinese historians.

The same Fou-hi, they say, made arms, and ordained punishments. These arms were of wood, those of Chin-nong were of stone, and Tchi-yeou made some of metal. Fou-hi drained off the waters, and surrounded the cities with walls. In the mean time, as Chin-nong is esteemed the first who made walls of stone, we must suppose that those raised by Fou-hi were only of earth or brick.

Fou-hi gave rules to music. Those who ascribe this fine art to Hoang-ti are deceived (or vice versa.) After Fou-hi had invented fishing, he made a song for the fishers. It was from his example that Chin nong made one for the labourers.

Fou-hi took of the wood of Tong; he made it hollow; and of it made a kine (a lyre, or what you please to translate it) seven feet two inches long; the strings were of silk, to the number of 27; he commanded this instrument to be named Li. Others say it had but 25 strings, othets 10, and others only 5; (which of them shall we believe?) Besides, others make this instrument only three feet six inches six lines in length.

Fou-hi made this instrument, say some, to ward off inchantments, and banish impurity of heart.

He took of the wood of sang, and made also a guitar of 36, or rather of 50 strings. This instrument served to adorn the person with virtues, and to regulate the heart, &c. Lastly, he made a third instrument of baked earth; after which, say they, ceremonies and music were in high esteem.

The money which Fou-hi introduced, was of copper, round within to imitate heaven, and square without to resemble the earth.

He himself made trial of many medicinal plants (This is most commonly said of Chin-nong: but it is pretended, that Chin-nong finished what Fou-hi had began.)

This is all we read of Fou-hi. Several contradictions will be remarked in most of these traditions, especially when we come to see in the sequel, that almost all these inventions are ascribed to the successors of Fou-hi. From hence may be judged what regard is due to the beginnings of the Chinese history.

We have still some reigns to examine, before we have done with the fabulous and uncertain times.

They say of Koung-koung, that he employed iron in making hangers and hatchets.

They ascribe to Niu oua (who is the Eve of the Chinese) several instruments of music. The instruments seng and hoang served her, say they, to communicate with the eight winds. By means of kouens, or double flutes, she united all sounds into one, and made concord between the sun, moon, and stars. This is called perfect harmony. Niu-oua had a guitar (se) of five strings; she made another of 50 strings, whole sound was so affecting, that it could not be borne; wherefore she reduced these 50 strings to 25, to diminish its force.

The emperor Chin-nong is very famous among the Chinese, by the great discoveries which, they say, he made in medicine, agriculture, and even in the military art, since they believe, that, in the times of Han, they had a book of this prince on the military art.

A fondness for the marvellous has made some say, that, at three years of age, he knew every thing that concerned agriculture. The very name Chin-nong, in the Chinese language, signifies, the first of husbandry. Chin-nong took very hard wood, of which he made the coulter of the plough, and softer wood of which he made the handle. He taught men to cultivate the earth. They ascribe to him the invention of wine. He sowed the five kinds of grains on the south of Mount Ki, and taught the people to make them their food.

Chin-nong commanded that they should be diligent in gathering the fruits which the earth produced. He taught every thing relative to hemp, to the mulberry tree, and the art of making cloth and stuffs of silk. They owe also to Chin nong the potters and the founders art; others, however, ascribe pottery to Hoang-ti, and the art of melting metals to Tchi-yeou.

Chin-nong invented fairs in the middle of the day, This was the origin of commerce and mutual exchange. He made use of money to facilitate trade. He instituted festivals.

Chin nong distinguished plants, determined their various properties, and applied them skilfully in the care of diseases. They say, that, in one day, he made trial of 70 kinds of poisons, spoke of 400 diseases, and taught 365 remedies. This makes the subject of a book, intitled, Pouenetsao, which they ascribe to him, and which contains four chapters. Others alledge, and with reason, that this book is not ancient. They say, with as little truth, that Chin-nong made books ingraved on square plates.

Chin-nong commanded Tsiou-ho-ki to commit to writing every thing relative to the colour of sick persons, and what concerned the pulse, to teach how to examine its motions if they were regular and harmonious, and, for this end, how to feel it from time to time, and acquaint the patient.

Chin-nong composed ballads or songs on the fertility of the country. He made a very beautiful lyre, and a guitar adorned with precious stones, to form the grand harmony, to bridle concupiscence, to elevate virtue to the intelligent spirit, and bring men back to the celestial verity.

Chin-nong ascended a car drawn by five dragons. He was the first that measured the figure of the earth, and determined the four seas. He found 900,000 lys is west, and 850,000 is north and south. He divided all this vast space into kingdoms.

Among the successors of Chin-nong they place Hoang-ti, and the rebel Tchi yeou, whom they make the inventor of arms of iron, and several kinds of punishments. Tchi-yeou had the power of raising mists and darkness extremely thick. Hoang-ti knew not how to attack and overcome him. He accomplished it, however, by forming a car, on which he placed a figure whose arm of itself always turned to the south, in order to point out the four regions. Hoang-ti used the lance and buckler.

Tchi-yeou ordered sabres, lances, and cross-bows to be made. They ascribe to Hoang-ti the kia tse, or cycle of 60 years; or at least Ta-nao made it by his direction.

The Mandarin Tsang-kiai was charged to compose history. Yong-tcheng made a sphere which represented the celestial orbs, and discovered the polar star.

Li-cheou regulated numbers, and invented an instrument for computation, like to, or the same with that which is still in use in China and India; and of which Mattini, in his Decades, and la Loubere, in his voyage to Siam, have given us the design and description.

Ling-lune, a native of Yuene-yu, in the west of Ta-hia, (that is, Khorassan), took reeds in the valley of Hiai-ki; he cut two of an equal length, and blew into them: this gave occasion to the invention of bells. He adjusted twelve of these reeds to imitate the song of fong-hoang, the royal bird, (one of the fabulous birds of the Chinese). He divided these reeds into twelve lu; six served to imitate the song of the male, and six that of the female. Finally, this man brought music to perfection, and explained the order and arrangement of different sounds. By means of these lu-lu, he governed the Khi of the Yne and of Yang, he determined the change of the four seasons, and gave calculations for astronomy, geometry, and arithmetic.

Yong yuene, by order of Hoang-ti, made twelve bells of copper, which corresponded to the moons, and served to adjust the five tones, and fix the seasons, &c. fables.

Hoang ti invented a kind of diadem or tiara, called Miene. He ordered a blue and yellow robe to be made for himself, in imitation of the colours of heaven and earth. Having viewed the bird hoei, and considered the variety of its colours, as well as those of the flowers, he made garments be dyed of different colours, to make a distinction between the great and small, the rich and poor.

Nin-fong and Tche-tsiang invented mortars for pounding rice; kettles or caldrons: they invented the art of building bridges, and of making shoes; they made coffins for the dead; and men reaped great advantages from all these inventions. Hoei invented the bow, Y-meou arrows; Khy-pe invented the drum, which made a noise like thunder, trumpets and horns, which imitated the voice of the dragon.

Kong kou and Hoa-hu, by order of the Emperor Hoang ti, hollowed a tree of which they made a ship; of the branches of the same tree they made oars; and by this means they were able to penetrate into places which seemed inaccessible, and where men had never been.

For the transportation of merchandise by land, they also invented chariots under this reign, and trained oxen and horses to draw them.

Hoang-ti also turned his thoughts to buildings, and gave models of them. He built a temple, called Ho kong, in which he sacrificed to Chang-ti, or to the Supreme Being.

With a view to facilitate commerce, Hoang-ti struck money, called kine tao, knife of metal, because it had the shape of the blade of a knife.

Hoang-ti having observed that men died before the time fixed by nature, of diseases which carried them off, he commanded Yu-fou, Ki-pe, and Lei-kong, three famous physicians of these times, to assist him to determine what remedies were proper for each disease.

Si-ling-chi, the chief consort of that emperor, contributed on her part to the good of the state, and taught the people the art of rearing silk worms, of spinning their cods, and making stuffs of them.

The Ouai-ki takes notice, that Hoang-ti commanded China to be measured, and divided into provinces or tcheou. Each tcheou was composed of ten che, each che was composed of ten tou, and each tou contained ten ye, or ten cities. These ten ye, or cities, had each five ly, or streets, &c.

The empire of Hoang-ti, which, according to this historian, seems to have been considerable, extended on eeast to the sea, on the west to Khong tong. It was bounded on the south by Kiang, and on the north by the country of Hoene-jo.

They say nothing that has any relation to the arts under the three princes who follow Hoang-ti; that is to say, under the reigns of Chao-hao, who reigned 84 years; of Tchouene-hio, who reigned 73 years; and of Cao sine, who reigned 70 years. They observe only, that Chao-hao made them beat the watches with a drum: this supposes that they had then some instrument for marking the hours. The Se-ki adds, that this emperor levelled the highways, in order to render the mountains accessible, and that he cleared the channels of rivers. He made also a new kind of music, called Ta yuene, to unite men and genii, and reconcile high and low.

3. After having overcome the fatigue of so many fabulous traditions, we now come to the historical times. But before we enter upon them, it will not be improper to make some reflections which are absolutely necessary to shew how little regard is due to this sort of traditions. These reflections are thought to be so much the more important, as they will help to undeceive a great many people of the mistake they are in about the Chinese antiquities.

The Chinese monarchy began by three princes, distinguished by the title of Sane-hoang, that is to say the three Augusti. These three Augusti, according to the most generally received opinion, are Fou hi, Chine-nong, and Hoang-ti. The five emperors, successors of the Sang-hoang, are distinguished by the title of Ou-ti, that is to say, the five emperors. The five emperors are, Chao hao, Tchouene-hio, Tico, Yao, and Chune. This division has been followed by Cong-ngane-coue, the great grandson of Confucius, in the eighth generation, and one of the most celebrated writers of the dynasty of Hane. It has been adopted also by Hoang-fou-mi, and by most part of the best writers. The proofs of this opinion are taken partly from the book Tcheou li, an ancient record, or state of the empire, which many ascribe to the famous Tcheou-cong, minister and brother of Vou-vang, who was the founder of the imperial dynasty of Tcheou, eleven hundred and some odd years before the Christian era; partly from the commentaries of Tso-kieou-mine on the Tchune-tsieou of Confucius’s master. In these works, mention is made of the books, Sane-fene, and Ou-tiene, which, they say, are the histories of the three Hoang, and of the five Ti: now, the two first chapters of Chou-king, which contain an extract of the histories of Yao and of Chune, bore the title of Tiene-yao and Tiene-Chune; from whence it was concluded, that Yao and Chune were two of the five Ti; consequently Fou-hi, Ching-nong, and Hoang ti, were what are called the three Hoang; and Chao-hao, Tchouene-hio, Tico, Yao, and Chune, were the five Ti.

These may perhaps be thought but feeble proofs to support an historical fact of this kind; but those who are of a contrary opinion, bring nothing to induce us to believe them, rather than Cong-ngane-coue and Hoang-fou mi.

Hou-chouang-hou, in a preface before the Tsiene-piene of Kine-gine-chane confesses, that we find in the Tcheou-li, the existence of the book of three Hoang, and that of five Ti: but he adds, that we do not find there the names of these eight monarchs; that, under the Tsin, they spoke of Tiene-hoang, of Ti-hoang, and of Gine-hoang; that Cong-ngane-coue, in his preface to Chou-king, gives Fou hi, Chine nong, Hoang-ti, for the three Hoang, and that he takes Chao hao, Tchouene-hio, Tio, Yao, and Chune for the five Ti; but that we know not on what foundation he does this, since Confucius, in the Kia yu, distinguishes by the title of Ti, all the kings after Fou hi. The same thing is proved by some passages of Tso-chi and of Liu pou-ouei; from whence they conclude, that Fou-hi, Chine-nong, and Hoang ti are not the three Hoang, and that there are no other Hoang but heaven, earth, and man.

Tchine-huene retrenches Hoang ti from the number of the Sane hoang, and puts in his place Niu-oua, whom he ranges between Fou-hi and Chine nong. Others strike out Niu-oua, and put Tcho-yong in the place of Hoang-ti. Niu-oua was the sister of Fou-hi, and Fou-hi, they say, reigned 115 years. At what age must this princess have mounted the throne, for they make her succeed her brother?

The famous Se ma-tsiene, to whom the Chinese, from their high esteem of him, have given the name of Tai sse-cong, or father of history, will have Hoang-ti, Tchouene-hio, Cao-sine, Yao, and Chune to be the five Ti; and he gave these princes for their predecessors Soui-gine chi, Fou-hi, and Chine nong, who, according to him, were the three Hoang. This opinion, since his time, has been embraced by several other writers, who depended upon his authority more than upon proofs which he could not produce.

Confucius says in his Kia yu, that the princes who had governed the empire began at Fou hi to take the name of Ti or Emperor. The same philosopher says further, in the treatise Hi-tsee, or commentary upon the Y-king, that anciently Fou hi governed China, that Chine nong succeeded him, that after them Hoang-ti, Yao, and Chune were seated on the throne. From so decisive a testimony, Hou-ou-fang, and several others with him, have not doubted, that these five princes named by Confucius were the Ou-ti, or five emperors. As to the Sane hoang, they admitted Tiene hoang chi, Ti hoang chi, Gine-hoang chi, as three chiefs of the people who had governed the empire before Fou-hi.

As it is from Tao-sse, that the several authors we have now quoted, have borrowed their idea of this chimerical division of the eight first Chinese emperors, into three Hoang and five Ti, it is necessary to relate what these religious think themselves. They have opinions peculiar to themselves about these first ages of the monarchy. They believe, that at the first there were three Augusti, Sane-hoang; then five emperors, Ou ti; next three kings, Sane-vang; and lastly, five Pa, Ou-pa; that is to say, five chiefs of Regulos.

This order so regularly observed of three and then five, which is repeated twice, shews plainly, that all this has no foundation in truth, but that it is a system invented at pleasure. Wherefore Tou-chong-chu, who lived under the Hane, explained this in an allegorical manner. The three Hoang were, according to him, the three powers, (heaven, earth, and man); The five Ti were the five duties (the duties of king and subject, of father and children, of husband and wife, of elder and younger brothers, of friends); the three Vang were the three lights, (sun, moon, and stars); finally, the five Pa were the five mountains, four of which are situated at the four cardinal points of the empire, and the fifth at the centre. Thus Tong-tchong chu allegorized this this pretended succession of kings. But Lopi, who relates this explanation, adds, it was not his own. This is a point of criticism of little importance to us; let them, if they please, ascribe it to some other than Tong-tchong-chu; we have still ground to say, that it came from some writer who lived in an age not far from that of Tong-tchong-chu. This is enough for our present purpose, since we see from hence the little regard they then paid to this division, which they considered as chimerical. It would be in vain to attempt to reconcile all these contradictions. All these imaginary reigns are in the manner of the Tao-sse, who have darkened the origin of the Chinese monarchy by their fables and mythology. The ten Ki or periods are of their inventing; they gave them between two and three millions of years duration. But before these ten periods, they place three dynasties, viz. the dynasty of Thiene-hoang-chi, that of Ti-hoang-chi, and finally, that of Gine hoang-chi. If we attend to the signification of these names, they must be interpreted thus: the Sovereign of heaven, the Sovereign of earth, the Sovereign of men. We see from hence, that the allegorical explanation of Tong-tchong chu, which made the three Hoang signify the three powers, that is, heaven, earth, and man, is not without probability.

These three Hoang succeeded to Pouane-cou, otherwise Hoene tune, the chaos, the origin of the world, which several of the Tao sse take for the first man, or the first king who governed China.

The dynasty of Thiene hoang-chi had thirteen kings, who reigned, say they, 18,000 years; then came the dynasty of Ti-hoang chi, whose kings, to the number of eleven, make up a like duration of 18,000 years. Finally, to Ti-hoang-chi succeeded the Gine-hoang-chi, whose dynasty, composed of nine kings, furnishes a space of 45,600 years. These three sums added, give us precisely 81,600 years. But if we add to these three dynasties, those which are comprehended in each of the ten Ki, and which amount, according to some calculations, to more than 230; we shall find that the pretensions of the Chinese very much exceed those of the Chaldeans and Egyptians. For if we believe the calculations of various authors, from Pouane-cou to the death of Confucius, which happened in the year 479 before J. C. there is elapsed 276,000 years, or 2,276,000, or 2,759,860, or even 3,276,000; or, finally, which is a great deal more, 96,961,740 years: for we find all these different calculations.

It is visible enough, that these extravagant numbers can be nothing else but astronomical periods, contrived to give the conjunction of the planets in certain contellations, or calculations which have some relation to the ideas of the Tao sse, concerning the perpetual destructions and reproductions of worlds. In fact, some have endeavoured to make these numbers agree with the period of Tchao-cang-tsie, a famous philosopher in the days of Song, who had undertaken to determine the period of the duration of the world; for the system of the deſtruction and reproduction of worlds was very current, not only in the sect of Ju or of the learned, but also among the Bonzes, Ho-chang or the religious of Fo, and among the Tao-sse or followers of Lao Kiune, that it to say, among the three great sects, who have the most influence in the empire. Tchao-cang-tsie established then a great period of 129,000 years, called Yuene, composed of twelve equal parts, called hoei, or conjunctions, which were each of 10,800 years. In the first conjunction, said he, heaven was formed by little and little, by the motion which the Tai-ki, or the Supreme Being, impressed upon matter which was formerly at perfect rest. During the second conjunction, the earth was produced in the same manner. At the middle of the third conjunction, man and all other beings began to spring up, in the manner that plants and trees are produced in the islands, which afterwards preserve their several kinds by their seeds. At the middle of the eleventh conjunction, all things shall be destroyed, and the world shall fall back again into its primitive chaos, from whence it shall not arise till after the twelfth conjunction is expired.

It is not difficult at present to conceive, that the Tao-sse had invented that prodigious number of reigns before Fou-hi, for no other reason, but to fill up that interval, which, according to them, had elapsed from the production of man, to the beginning of the Chinese monarchy, that is to say, to the reign of Fou-hi. The same calculator determined the half of Yuene, or of his great period of 129,000 years, at the reign of Yao.

These Tao-sse, as was said already, laid down these ten ages or ten Ki as an indisputable principle; each Ki comprehended several dynasties, whose duration they determined as they thought fit, and as their calculation require: but if they were at liberty to increase or diminish the duration of the ten Ki, it was not the same as to their number, which was in some sort a fundamental principle of their sect, from which they were not allowed to depart.

Some missionaries, to whom this doctrine of Tao-sse was not unknown, imagined, that they discerned in these ten Ki, the ten generations before Noah; and as the writers cited by Lopi, and by Cong-ing-ta, say, that of these ten Ki, six were before Fou-he, and four after him; these same missionaries have imagined, that Fou-hi was Enoch. It must be owned, in the mean time, that Tchine-huene and several others do not observe the same order; that they place Chine-nong in the ninth Ki, Ho-ang-ti in the tenth, &c. By this computation Hoang ti would be Noah, and Fou-hi Methuselah, which contradicts their hypothesis.

The opinion which considers the ten Ki of the Chinese as the ten generations which preceded Noah, is very ingenious, and not improbable. Towards the end of the reign of Tcheou, about 300 years before the Christian era, some Jews travelled into China, who might have made the writings of Moses known there, and, of consequence, the ten generations which preceded the deluge: besides, this knowledge was common to the Chaldeans, who might have penetrated into China before the Jews.

Encyclopædia Britannica, First Edition, Volume II (1771)