New Latin Grammar by Charles E. Bennett (1918)

THE LATIN LANGUAGE.

1. The Indo-European Family of Languages.—Latin belongs to one group of a large family of languages, known as Indo-European. This Indo-European family of languages embraces the following groups:

ASIATIC MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY.

a. The Sanskrit, spoken in ancient India. Of this there were several stages, the oldest of which is the Vedic, or language of the Vedic Hymns. These Hymns are the oldest literary productions known to us among all the branches of the Indo-European family. A conservative estimate places them as far back as 1500 B.C.E Some scholars have even set them more than a thousand years earlier than this, i.e. anterior to 2500 B.C.E

The Sanskrit, in modified form, has always continued to be spoken in India, and is represented to-day by a large number of dialects descended from the ancient Sanskrit, and spoken by millions of people.

b. The Iranian, spoken in ancient Persia, and closely related to the Sanskrit. There were two main branches of the Iranian group, viz. the Old Persian and the Avestan. The Old Persian was the official language of the court, and appears in a number of so-called cuneiform inscriptions, the earliest of which date from the time of Darius I (sixth century B.C.E). The other branch of the Iranian, the Avestan, is the language of the Avesta or sacred books of the Parsees, the followers of Zoroaster, founder of the religion of the fire-worshippers. Portions of these sacred books may have been composed as early as 1000 B.C.E

Modern Persian is a living representative of the old Iranian speech. It has naturally been much modified by time, particularly through the introduction of many words from the Arabic.

c. The Armenian, spoken in Armenia, the district near the Black Sea and Caucasus Mountains. This is closely related to the Iranian, and was formerly classified under that group. It is now recognized as entitled to independent rank. The earliest literary productions of the Armenian language date from the fourth and fifth centuries of the Christian era. To this period belong the translation of the Scriptures and the old Armenian Chronicle. The Armenian is still a living language, though spoken in widely separated districts, owing to the scattered locations in which the Armenians are found to-day.

d. The Tokharian. This language, only recently discovered and identified as Indo-European, was spoken in the districts east of the Caspian Sea (modern Turkestan). While in some respects closely related to the three Asiatic branches of the Indo-European family already considered, in others it shows close relationship to the European members of the family. The literature of the Tokharian, so far as it has been brought to light, consists mainly of translations from the Sanskrit sacred writings, and dates from the seventh century of our era.

EUROPEAN MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY.

e. The Greek. The Greeks had apparently long been settled in Greece and Asia Minor as far back as 1500 B.C. Probably they arrived in these districts much earlier. The earliest literary productions are the Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer, which very likely go back to the ninth century B.C. From the sixth century B.C. on, Greek literature is continuous. Modern Greek, when we consider its distance in time from antiquity, is remarkably similar to the classical Greek of the fourth and fifth centuries B.C.

f. The Italic Group. The Italic Group embraces the Umbrian, spoken in the northern part of the Italian peninsula (in ancient Umbria); the Latin, spoken in the central part (in Latium); the Oscan, spoken in the southern part (in Samnium, Campania, Lucania, etc.). Besides these, there were a number of minor dialects, such as the Marsian, Volscian, etc. Of all these (barring the Latin), there are no remains except a few scanty inscriptions. Latin literature begins shortly after 250 B.C. in the works of Livius Andronicus, Naevius, and Plautus, although a few brief inscriptions are found belonging to a much earlier period.

g. The Celtic. In the earliest historical times of which we have any record, the Celts occupied extensive portions of northern Italy, as well as certain areas in central Europe; but after the second century B.C., they are found only in Gaul and the British Isles. Among the chief languages belonging to the Celtic group are the Gallic, spoken in ancient Gaul; the Breton, still spoken in the modern French province of Brittany; the Irish, which is still extensively spoken in Ireland among the common people, the Welsh; and the Gaelic of the Scotch Highlanders.

h. The Teutonic. The Teutonic group is very extensive. Its earliest representative is the Gothic, preserved for us in the translation of the scriptures by the Gothic Bishop Ulfilas (about 375 A.D.). Other languages belonging to this group are the Old Norse, once spoken in Scandinavia, and from which are descended the modern Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish; German; Dutch; Anglo-Saxon, from which is descended the modern English.

i. The Balto-Slavic. The languages of this group belong to eastern Europe. The Baltic division of the group embraces the Lithuanian and Lettic, spoken to-day by the people living on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. The earliest literary productions of these languages date from the sixteenth century. The Slavic division comprises a large number of languages, the most important of which are the Russian, the Bulgarian, the Serbian, the Bohemian, the Polish. All of these were late in developing a literature, the earliest to do so being the Old Bulgarian, in which we find a translation of the Bible dating from the ninth century.

j. The Albanian, spoken in Albania and parts of Greece, Italy, and Sicily. This is most nearly related to the Balto-Slavic group, and is characterized by the very large proportion of words borrowed from Latin, Turkish, Greek, and Slavic. Its literature does not begin till the seventeenth century.

2. Home of the Indo-European Family.—Despite the many outward differences of the various languages of the foregoing groups, a careful examination of their structure and vocabulary demonstrates their intimate relationship and proves overwhelmingly their descent from a common parent. We must believe, therefore, that at one time there existed a homogeneous clan or tribe of people speaking a language from which all the above enumerated languages are descended. The precise location of the home of this ancient tribe cannot be determined. For a long time it was assumed that it was in central Asia north of the Himalaya Mountains, but this view has long been rejected as untenable. It arose from the exaggerated importance attached for a long while to Sanskrit. The great antiquity of the earliest literary remains of the Sanskrit (the Vedic Hymns) suggested that the inhabitants of India were geographically close to the original seat of the Indo-European Family. Hence the home was sought in the elevated plateau to the north. To-day it is thought that central or southeastern Europe is much more likely to have been the cradle of the Indo-European parent-speech, though anything like a logical demonstration of so difficult a problem can hardly be expected.

As to the size and extent of the original tribe whence the Indo-European languages have sprung, we can only speculate. It probably was not large, and very likely formed a compact racial and linguistic unit for centuries, possibly for thousands of years.

The time at which Indo-European unity ceased and the various individual languages began their separate existence, is likewise shrouded in obscurity. When we consider that the separate existence of the Sanskrit may antedate 2500 B.C., it may well be believed that people speaking the Indo-European parent-speech belonged to a period as far back as 5000 B.C., or possibly earlier.

3. Stages in the Development of the Latin Language.—The earliest remains of the Latin language are found in certain very archaic inscriptions. The oldest of these belong to the sixth and seventh centuries B.C. Roman literature does not begin till several centuries later, viz. shortly after the middle of the third century B.C. We may recognize the following clearly marked periods of the language and literature:

a. The Preliterary Period, from the earliest times down to 240 B.C., when Livius Andronicus brought out his first play. For this period our knowledge of Latin depends almost exclusively upon the scanty inscriptions that have survived from this remote time. Few of these are of any length.

b. The Archaic Period, from Livius Andronicus (240 B.C.) to Cicero (81 B.C.). Even in this age the language had already become highly developed as a medium of expression. In the hands of certain gifted writers it had even become a vehicle of power and beauty. In its simplicity, however, it naturally marks a contrast with the more finished diction of later days. To this period belong:

c. The Golden Age, from Cicero (81 B.C.) to the death of Augustus (14 A.D.). In this period the language, especially in the hands of Cicero, reaches a high degree of stylistic perfection. Its vocabulary, however, has not yet attained its greatest fullness and range. Traces of the diction of the Archaic Period are often noticed, especially in the poets, who naturally sought their effects by reverting to the speech of olden times. Literature reached its culmination in this epoch, especially in the great poets of the Augustan Age. The following writers belong here:

d. The Silver Latinity, from the death of Augustus (14 A.D.) to the death of Marcus Aurelius (180 A.D.), This period is marked by a certain reaction against the excessive precision of the previous age. It had become the practice to pay too much attention to standardized forms of expression, and to leave too little play to the individual writer. In the healthy reaction against this formalism, greater freedom of expression now manifests itself. We note also the introduction of idioms from the colloquial language, along with many poetical words and usages. The following authors deserve mention:

e. The Archaizing Period. This period is characterized by a conscious imitation of the Archaic Period of the second and first centuries B.C.; it overlaps the preceding period, and is of importance from a linguistic rather than from a literary point of view. Of writers who manifest the archaizing tendency most conspicuously may be mentioned Fronto, from whose hand we have a collection of letters addressed to the Emperors Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius; also Aulus Gellius, author of the “Attic Nights.” Both of these writers flourished in the second half of the second century A.D.

f. The Period of the Decline, from 180 to the close of literary activity in the sixth century A.D. This period is characterized by rapid and radical alterations in the language. The features of the conversational idiom of the lower strata of society invade the literature, while in the remote provinces, such as Gaul, Spain, Africa, the language suffers from the incorporation of local peculiarities. Representative writers of this period are:

4. Subsequent History of the Latin Language.—After the sixth century A.D. Latin divides into two entirely different streams. One of these is the literary language maintained in courts, in the Church, and among scholars. This was no longer the language of people in general, and as time went on, became more and more artificial. The other stream is the colloquial idiom of the common people, which developed ultimately in the provinces into the modern so-called Romance idioms. These are the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Provençal (spoken in Provence, i.e. southeastern France), the Rhaeto-Romance (spoken in the Canton of the Grisons in Switzerland), and the Roumanian, spoken in modern Roumania and adjacent districts. All these Romance languages bear the same relation to the Latin as the different groups of the Indo-European family of languages bear to the parent speech.

CONTENTS

PART I.

SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY, ETC.

The Alphabet

Classification of Sounds

Sounds of the Letters

Syllables

Quantity

Accent

Vowel Changes

Consonant Changes

Peculiarities of Orthography

PART II.

INFLECTIONS.

CHAPTER I.—Declension.

A. NOUNS.

Gender of Nouns

Number

Cases

The Five Declensions

First Declension

Second Declension

Third Declension

Fourth Declension

Fifth Declension

Defective Nouns

B. ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions

Adjectives of the Third Declension

Comparison of Adjectives

Formation and Comparison of Adverbs

Numerals

C. PRONOUNS.

Personal Pronouns

Reflexive Pronouns

Possessive Pronouns

Demonstrative Pronouns

The Intensive Pronoun

The Relative Pronoun

Interrogative Pronouns

Indefinite Pronouns

Pronominal Adjectives

CHAPTER II.—Conjugation.

Verb Stems

The Four Conjugations

Conjugation of Sum

First Conjugation

Second Conjugation

Third Conjugation

Fourth Conjugation

Verbs in -iō of the Third Conjugation

Deponent Verbs

Semi-Deponents

Periphrastic Conjugation

Peculiarities of Conjugation

Formation of the Verb Stems

List of the Most Important Verbs with Principal Parts

Irregular Verbs

Defective Verbs

Impersonal Verbs

PART III.

PARTICLES.

Adverbs

Prepositions

Interjections

PART IV.

WORD FORMATION.

I. DERIVATIVES.

Nouns

Adjectives

Verbs

Adverbs

II. COMPOUNDS.

Examples of Compounds

PART V.

SYNTAX.

CHAPTER I.—Sentences.

Classification of Sentences

Form of Interrogative Sentences

Subject and Predicate

Simple and Compound Sentences

CHAPTER II.—Syntax of Nouns.

Subject

Predicate Nouns

Appositives

The Nominative

The Accusative

The Dative

The Genitive

The Ablative

The Locative

CHAPTER III.—Syntax of Adjectives.

Agreement of Adjectives

Adjectives used Substantively

Adjectives with the Force of Adverbs

Comparatives and Superlatives

Other Peculiarities

CHAPTER IV.—Syntax of Pronouns.

Personal Pronouns

Possessive Pronouns

Reflexive Pronouns

Reciprocal Pronouns

Demonstrative Pronouns

Relative Pronouns

Indefinite Pronouns

Pronominal Adjectives

CHAPTER V.—Syntax of Verbs.

Agreement of Verbs

Voices

Tenses

— Of the Indicative

— Of the Subjunctive

— Of the Infinitive

Moods

— In Independent Sentences

— — Volitive Subjunctive

— — Optative Subjunctive

— — Potential Subjunctive

— — Imperative

— In Dependent Clauses

— — Clauses of Purpose

— — Clauses of Characteristic

— — Clauses of Result

— — Causal Clauses

— — Temporal Clauses

— — — Introduced by Postquam, Ut, Ubi, etc.

— — — Cum-Clauses

— — — Introduced by Antequam and Priusquam

— — — Introduced by Dum, Dōnec, Quoad

— — Substantive Clauses

— — — Developed from the Volitive

— — — Developed from the Optative

— — — Of Result

— — — After nōn dubito, etc.

— — — Introduced by Quod

— — — Indirect Questions

— — Conditional Sentences

— — Use of Sī, Nisi, Sīn

— — Conditional Clauses of Comparison

— — Concessive Clauses

— — Adversative Clauses with Quamvīs, Quamquam, etc.

— — Clauses of Wish and Proviso

— — Relative Clauses

— — Indirect Discourse

— — — Moods in Indirect Discourse

— — — Tenses in Indirect Discourse

— — — Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse

— — Implied Indirect Discourse

— — Subjunctive by Attraction

Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb

— Infinitive

— Participles

— Gerund

— Supine

CHAPTER VI.—Particles.

Coördinate Conjunctions

Adverbs

CHAPTER VII.—Word-Order and Sentence-Structure.

Word-Order

Sentence-Structure

CHAPTER VIII.—Hints on Latin Style.

Nouns

Adjectives

Pronouns

Verbs

The Cases

PART VI.

PROSODY.

Quantity of Vowels and Syllables

Verse-Structure

The Dactylic Hexameter

The Dactylic Pentameter

Iambic Measures

SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.

I. JULIAN CALENDAR.

371. 1. The names of the Roman months are: Jānuārius, Februārius, Mārtius, Aprīlis, Majus, Jūnius, Jūlius (Quīntīlis prior to 46 B.C.), Augustus (Sextīlis before the Empire), September, Octōber, November, December. These words are properly Adjectives in agreement with mēnsis understood.

2. Dates were reckoned from three points in the month:—

3. From these points dates were reckoned backward; consequently all days after the Ides of any month were reckoned as so many days before the Calends of the month next following.

4. The day before the Calends, Nones, or Ides of any month is designated as prīdiē Kalendās, Nōnās, Īdūs. The second day before was designated as diē tertiō ante Kalendās, Nōnās, etc. Similarly the third day before was designated as diē quārtō, and so on. These designations are arithmetically inaccurate, but the Romans reckoned both ends of the series. The Roman numeral indicating the date is therefore always larger by one than the actual number of days before Nones, Ides, or Calends.

5. In indicating dates, the name of the month is added in the form of an Adjective agreeing with Kalendās, Nōnās, Īdūs. Various forms of expression occur, of which that given under d) is most common:—

6. These designations may be treated as nouns and combined with the prepositions in, ad, ex; as,—

ex ante diem quīntum Īdūs Octōbrēs, from the 11th of October.

7. In leap-year the 25th was reckoned as the extra day in February. The 24th was designated as ante diem VI Kalendās Mārtiās, and the 25th as ante diem bis VI Kal Mārt.

CALENDAR.

Days  |March,May,July|January, August|   April,June, |
of the|   October.   |   December    |   September,  |  February
month.|              |               |    November   |
------+--------------+---------------+---------------+---------------
   1  |KALENDĪS      |KALENDĪS       |KALENDĪS       |KALENDĪS
   2  |VI Nōnās      |IV  Nōnās      |IV Nōnās       |IV Nōnās
   3  |V    "        |III   "        |III  "         |III  "
   4  |IV   "        |Prīdiē Nōnās   |Prīdiē Nōnās   |Prīdiē Nōnās
   5  |III  "        |NŌNĪS          |NŌNĪS          |NŌNĪS
   6  |Prīdiē Nōnās  |VIII Īdūs      |VIII Īdūs      |VIII Īdūs
   7  |NŌNĪS         |VII   "        |VII   "        |VII   "
   8  |VIII Īdūs     |VI    "        |VI    "        |VI    "
   9  |VII   "       |V     "        |V     "        |V     "
  10  |VI    "       |IV    "        |IV    "        |IV    "
  11  |V     "       |III   "        |III   "        |III   "
  12  |IV    "       |Pr. Īdūs       |Pr. Īdūs       |Pr. Īdūs
  13  |III   "       |ĪDIBUS         |ĪDIBUS         |ĪDIBUS
  14  |Pr. Īdūs      |XIX    Kalend. |XVIII   Kalend.|XVI    Kalend.
  15  |ĪDIBUS        |XVIII    "     |XVII      "    |XV        "
  16  |XVII  Kalend. |XVII     "     |XVI       "    |XIV       "
  17  |XVI     "     |XVI      "     |XV        "    |XIII      "
  18  |XV      "     |XV       "     |XIV       "    |XII       "
  19  |XIV     "     |XIV      "     |XIII      "    |XI        "
  20  |XIII    "     |XIII     "     |XII       "    |X         "
  21  |XII     "     |XII      "     |XI        "    |IX        "
  22  |XI      "     |XI       "     |X         "    |VIII      "
  23  |X       "     |X        "     |IX        "    |VII       "
  24  |IX      "     |IX       "     |VIII      "    |VI        "
  25  |VIII    "     |VIII     "     |VII       "    |V (bis VI)"
  26  |VII     "     |VII      "     |VI        "    |IV (V)    "
  27  |VI      "     |VI       "     |V         "    |III (IV)  "
  28  |V       "     |V        "     |IV        "    |Pr.Kal.(III K.)
  29  |IV      "     |IV       "     |III       "    |(Prīd. Kal.)
  30  |III     "     |III      "     |Pr. Kalend.    |(Enclosed forms are
  31  |Pr. Kalend.   |Pr. Kalend.    |               |for leap-year.)

PROPER NAMES.

373. 1. The name of a Roman citizen regularly consisted of three parts: the praenōmen (or given name), the nōmen (name of the gens or clan), and the cognōmen (family name). Such a typical name is exemplied by Mārcus Tullius Cicerō, in which Mārcus is the praenōmen, Tullius the nōmen, and Cicerō the cognōmen. Sometimes a second cognōmen (in later Latin called an agnōmen) is added—expecially in honor of military achievements; as,—

Gāius Cornēlius Scīpiō Āfricānus.

2. ABBREVIATIONS OF PROPER NAMES.

III. FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC

A. Figures of Syntax.

374. 1. Ellípsis is the omission of one or more words; as,—

2. Brachýlogy is a brief or condensed form of expression; as,—

Special varieties of Brachylogy are—

3. Pléonasm is an unnecessary fullness of expression; as,—

4. Hendíadys (‛εν δια δυοιν, one through two) is the use of two nouns joined by a conjunction, in the sense of a noun modified by a Genitive or an Adjective; as,—

5. Prolépsis, or Anticipation, is the introduction of an epithet in advance of the action which makes it appropriate; as,—

6. Anacolúthon is a lack of grammatical consistency in the construction of the sentence; as,—

7. Hýsteron Próteron consists in the inversion of the natural order of two words or phrases; as,—

B. Figures of Rhetoric.

375. 1. Lítotes (literally softening) is the expression of an idea by the denial of its opposite; as,—

2. Oxymóron is the combination of contradictory conceptions; as,—

3. Alliteration is the employment of a succession of words presenting frequent repetition of the same letter (mostly initial); as,—

4. Onomatopœia is the suiting of sound to sense; as,—