Writings of Zoroastrians in post-Islam Iran (9 & 10 Centuries)

WRITTEN WORKS OF ZOROASTRIAN PRIESTS AFTER THE ARRIVAL OF ISLAM TO IRAN “IN 9&10 CENTURIES”

Fatemeh HADINEZHAD

Tehran Payame Noor University, Tehran, Iran

August, 2019

Writings of Zoroastrians in Post-Islam Iran (9 & 10 Centuries)

Introduction

Mobed (priest) in Zoroastrianism or Mazdaysna refers to a spiritual guide or cleric. In other ancient sources like Avesta, Mogh or Moghan have been used instead of Mobed. Mobed-e Mobedan is also the name of the supreme leader of Zoroastrianism in Sassanid era. The Zoroastrian priests enjoyed a very high stance in the Sassanid era’s social classes. They were guardians of the fire-temple, scholars of religious sciences, fighters against heresies and new religions, listeners to the king’s confession, the middlemen between the king and the peasants, foretellers of the future events, supervisors of the economic transactions ( Daryaee:45) and a vast array of other duties (Al-Ṭabarī:561) . However, the most ancient scientific achievement of the priests was a translation of Avesta (Zoroastrians’ religious book) to Pahlavi. (Nyberg: 16) But, the conquering of Iran by Arabs (651AD) and Islam’s entry into Iran caused a subtle change to come about in religious and political aspects. In between, Iranians were divided into several sets: a few numbers of them, particularly the low social classes converted to Islam with no resistance.

(Morony: 202) It seems that Zoroastrian was a royal religion and it had resulted in the gap between the people and the government, (Morony: 204). the ancient religion of Zoroastrianism might have felt boring with its large number of formalities in contrast to Islam’s monotheistic rituals the easy-understanding and tangibility of which had made it robust ,( Sir Thomas:301) . According to some historians, some others migrated from Kerman to Hormoz Island thence to India and gave rise to Sanjan Myth (Azar Goshnsb:59) and a large number of them, like Zoroastrian priests (magus) attempted to preserve and revitalize their religion and culture relying on the elements of ancient Iran. The element “religion” was at that time one of the most important indicators of unification between Iranians and this made them still remain the religious source of the people until about ninth century AD/third hegira century.

This group of Iranians was undoubtedly the majority of Iranians until late ninth century. Although some historians believe that until the end of tenth century A.D. numerous people of Iran were still Zoroastrians. Even some others have gone beyond this and claimed that Iran was conquered by Arabs in eleventh century (Petrushevsky: 48 ). The element “religion” was at that time one of the most important indicators of unification between Iranians and this made them still remain the religious source of the people until about ninth century AD/third hegira century . ( Estakhri)

The above mentioned hypotheses provoke questions that cannot be readily answered explicitly and they need research on more resources and taking more time. Several substantial questions are raised herein: 1) what strategies were adopted by the Zoroastrian priests in the new situation for the preservation of the Zoroastrian religion? 2) To what extent they made use of their scientific, religious and political characteristics in preservation and reviving of Iranian identity and teachings of Zoroastrianism and Avesta?

Although there is a scarcity of precise information regarding the religious and scientific activities of Zoroastrians during the first and second centuries after Islam’s entry of Iran, the investigation of the resources indicates that the Zoroastrianism religion was not overthrown all of a sudden with the Muslim Arabs into Iran. Generally, the propagation of Islam did not happen parallel to the conquering of the territories. Therefore, the fire-temples (Atash kadeh) were still working during the early centuries (Qazvini: 470). Fire-temples were the important centers of the preservation of the religious books and rituals of Zoroastrianism.

Estakhri and Ibn Houqal, two of the most prominent Iranian geographers, have spoken of the existence of these fire-temples during the fourth hegira century (10th century AD). (Ibn Ḥawqal:292)According to the resources, Muslims were not eager to make Iranians change their religion during Omavi’s caliphate period (662-750 AD) as the second Islamic caliphate after Rashedin Caliphs (632-661 AD) and the fire-temples were still at work. Thus, the continuation of operation in these centers meant the striving of the Zoroastrian priests. According to the resources, only 8% of the urban people converted from Zoroastrianism to Islam till the end of Omavis’ government. (Choksy: 35-40) But, upon Abbasid’s takeover of the power (750-1258 AD), the fire-temples were transformed into mosques and the Zoroastrian priests gradually lost their bases, although they made a lot of efforts to get themselves closer to such caliphs as Ma’amun(813-833 AD), Mo’tasem(833-842 AD) and Motavakkel(847-861 AD) and they used to hold debating sessions with them and the leaders of the other religions. (Mohammadi Malayeri: 352)Sindbad upheaval, (Sunpadh, was a Zoroastrian who, after the murder of Abu Muslim Al-Khorasani, was arrested in Rey and Neishabur for the revenge of Abu Musalem (Iranian Commander) against Mansour, Caliph Abbasi ) (Nerkishi: 77 ) as one of the most important rises during early Abbasid era, is readily reflective of the presence of countless numbers of Zoroastrian Iranians in this rebellion that makes it clear that many Zoroastrians lived in Khorasan and jebal. (IBN-Al-Nadīm: 610) And such historians as Moqaddasi, Mas’oudi and Ibn Moskaviyeh were in touch with them.

In this way priests sought to preserve their religion via harmonizing themselves with the social changes. While Zoroastrian society was gradually become less populated due to increasing conversions to Islam. Zoroastrian priests in the end of ninth century (third Hijra) made incessant efforts in order to collect and compile Zoroastrian books following the opening of the intellectual atmosphere of the society and also started to answer the objections of the heretics. In the same way that Ferdowsi the Iranian poet (940-1020 A.D.) and his disciples struggled to preserve the ancient rituals and traditions, Zoroastrian priests devoted themselves to the preservation of ancient religion. In fact, Zoroastrian priests who lived under the domination of Muslim rulers did not limit themselves in writing just to Pahlavi language. They also authored their works in Persian, the language in which spoke the new generations of Zoroastrians who hardly knew Pahlavi. Among the works that have been found there are some translations or complete or partial rewritings of Pahlavi books and a number of poems. Among the Zoroastrian authors after Islam one can refer to Atur Faranbagh Frokhzadan who lived in the times of Abbasid Ma’mun, Manushchehr Kashin Yim one of successors of Faranbagh and the Supreme Mobed of Fars and Kerman in the second half of the third century of Hijra and Emit Ashuhishtin the nephew of Manushchehr in the first half of the fourth century of Hijra. (Frye:366)

Some of the works that have remained from the Zoroastrian priests are as follows:

Bundahishen

Bundahishen or Bundahish is the name of a book in Pahlavi that most of the scholars believe that its final manuscript has been prepared in third century of Hijra/ ninth century A.D. in thirty and six chapters but its original manuscript dates back to Sassanid era and represents the fourth lost “Nask” of Avesta (Damdat Nask)(Sadiqi: 37)The final editor of this work was “Faranbagh” the son of “Dadwayh”. Bundhishen means “primordial creation” or “fundamental creation”. The original title of the book that has been mentioned in its opening was probably “Zandagahi” in the sense of “understanding based on Zand”. This shows that the author has grounded his own work on the interpretation of Avesta. (Tawadia: 94)And the second chapter of this work shows that the author has also taken advantage of the secrets if Babylonian and Greek sciences and the pre-Archimedean theories. F. Spiegel ،(F. Spiegel: 433-35).The content of this book is around three issues: 1) Primordial creation, “Ahura Mazda’s creation and Ahriman’s enmity, 2) explanation of creatures, how material world has been created from its beginning to its end, 3) Kayanian’s genealogy and their habitats. (Bundahišn: 31)The most vital and lengthiest chapter is the first chapter that is concerned with Ahuramazada and Ahriman and their conflict as well as the creation of material and spiritual creatures. However, themes discussed in this book are not restricted to creation issue and its many parts are related to the issues of the end of world even there are some ideas of the future events. In the chapter thirty and three of this book there is a story like history of Iran until the end of Sassanid era (Farnbagh Dadghi: different page). Great or Iranian Bundahish begins with an introduction whose language and content show that it dates back to post Islamic era and in its end there are words of the arrival of Arabs to Iranshahr and their evil actions. (F.Windischmann). There are two editions of this book first of which is known as Indian Bundahishen that is shorter and the second edition is known as Great Bundahishen or Iranian Bundahishen that is lengthier. The adjectives Indian and Iranian refer to the place where these manuscripts have been inscribed.

Ardā wīrāf nāma

Arda Wiraf Namag is the name of one the works that has been written in middle Persian and dates back to pre-Islamic era. The date of compilation of original manuscript should be after Khosrow Anushirvan. The book’s content is concerning the general beliefs of Iranians of the otherworld before Islam. Holy Wiraf was the name of one the priests who had ascended to the heavens according to Persians and Arda Wiraf Namag is the details of his ascension to heavens (Ardā Wīrāz nāmag: 35) .The religious story of Arda Wiraf is very similar to Dante’s Divine Comedy and researchers believe that Dante has been inspired by Arabic sources in the creation of his magnum opus which were in fact drawn upon Arda Wiraf Namag. ( Gignoux ) (Ardā Wīrāf nāmag has influenced the treatise on al-Ghafran of’Abdo’l’Al-e Ma’ari, and especially on the Dante Divine Comedy. The main theme of such episodes is a mystical journey, and passengers are in fact their spiritual commentators, Artaviraph Mobed Zoroastri, and Ibn Qarah, an Arab poet who travels to Abu’l-al-Ma’ari through this trip, are no exception. It is said that the structural and imaginative elements of the Sierra al-‘Abad al-‘Ma’ad system are also influenced by the artifacts, but the book of Sanai is more influenced by the inscription of Kartir and the discovery and intuition of Goshtasp, after being converted to Zoroastrianism.)

The famous book of Arda Wiraf Namag provides a comprehensive picture of hell according to Zoroastrianism. This book that seems to have been authored in third century of Hijra is one of the key sources of oral history of ancient Zoroastrian religion. The content of this book suggests that its original Pahlavi manuscript dates back to Sassanid era. This book is the story of a Mobed who is one of the leading clerics of Zoroastrianism in Sassanid era who is chosen to be put into sleep by other priests in order to enhance the certainty of people regarding religion, resurrection, paradise and hell. He meets two angels from various orders of paradise and hell. His soul visits the virtues of the righteous people in paradise and likewise the vices and punishments (Pad Afrah) of vicious people in the hell and after seven days he is awakened and relates the story. The name of this man is Wiraf and “Arda” means “saint”. The priests of Mazdayasna give a narcotic drink to Arda Wiraf to drink and this causes him to sleep three days and nights and after waking up he tells the story of his spiritual initiation. Although the story of spiritual initiation of Arda Wiraf is like a

hallucination and clearly has its origin in narcotization it is still a valuable and unique source of the beliefs of Zoroastrians of paradise and hell. In fact, as the author notes, the reason for such a story was the need for the revival of key religious beliefs of Zoroastrianism that were debased due to the conversions to new religion.

Matikan Gojestic Abalish

Matikan Gojestic Abalish or the Book of Cursed Abdullah is one of the books in Pahlavi that were written when Arabs invaded Iran and it includes 1200 Pahlavi words. Matikan in middle Persian means book. Gojestic implies “cursed” and “Abalish” is the Pahlavi equivalent of “Abdullah”. Accordingly, the name of this Nask in modern Persian is Abdullah Gojasteh or Cursed Abdullah. In the early years of second and third centuries of Hijra (ninth century A.D) Mobed “Artur Faranbagh” engaged in a debate with a newly converted Zoroastrian called “Dazu Ahuramazda” in the presence of Ma’mun the Abbasid Caliph (813-833 A.D.) and the Grand Cadi, Jewish, Muslim and Christian scholars(Tawadia:61). This man converts to Islam after the invasion of Arabs and changes his name to Abdullah or maybe Abdalith and he raises seven objections to Zoroastrianism but Mobed Artur Faranbagh convinces him with a clear language. He becomes embarrassed by the Caliph and leaves the court( Mushkor: 19). According to sources, if this debate is taken place in Baghdad, it is in ninth century and if it has been conducted in Khurasan it dates indeed back to the later years of eighth century A.D. In fact, this debate is estimated to have happened between 198 and 218 Hijra. (Matikan Gojestic Abalish: 473) Some scholars contend that the word “Abalish” is the Zoroastrian form of Semitic “Eblis” but Justi believes that it is Greek “Abaris” (Mushkor: 19-20). Anyway, this treatise suggests that Zoroastrian priests used to author similar works in defense of the legitimacy of Zoroastrianism as one of the key elements of Iranian identity. Of course, it seems queer that there is no mention of the name of this treatise in the works of Arab historians like Ibn Nadim and Haji Khalifa. This seems to have been due to the inattention of Arab historians to Zoroastrian works and perhaps their lack of knowledge of the Pahlavi texts (Mushkor: ibid).

Dēnkart

Mobed Artur Faranbagh (the one who debated with Abalish) (Pour Davood:156. Tafazoli:130) who lived in the time of Ma’mun and his name has been mentioned as the first author of Zoroastrian works in ninth

century A.D. and also as the first one who has struggled to prepare a treasure of Zoroastrian culture. He revived Sassanid Denkart every page of which was scattered throughout the land. (Some believe that this book existed at the time of the Sassanian, but after its fall they were spread.) (The time of inscription of Denkart is estimated to be the time of Harun al-Rashid (763-809 A.D.) the Abbasid Caliph and Ma’mun (Shahrzadi: 14-15). But later Denkart was completed by “Arturpat” the son of “Heymit” Azerbad the son of Omid (Adurbad Emedam). He titled this book as Denkart of Thousand Chapters and finalized the work in the time of Al-Mu’tamid (1040-1095 A.D) (Pour Davood:156)

Denkart is a magnificent work in middle Persian “Pahlavi” which has been considered to be an encyclopedia of Zoroastrianism or a guidebook of the Zoroastrian religion. “Denkart” can be translated as “religious deeds” or “book on religion”. This encyclopedic work consists of 169000 words (Gignoux: 284-289 ) and in 9 Nask. The first and second Nasks along with the third one are not available now. However, the author of “Shikand Gamanik Wichar” was familiar with them. This encyclopedia is not of a clear and detailed order and is concerned with the following themes: ethics, religious rituals, life of Zoroaster (history of prophets and myths of Zoroaster), creation of the world, and parts of the work include the words of Artur Faranbagh (Azvin Namak, content list of Avesta and chapters of each Nasak and three commentaries of “Gahan”. (Tafazoli: 49-90)This book is an effort to provide an outline of the relations of religion, government and people so that in this way it can provide an ideology for the Zoroastrians who are dominated by Muslims and also stand before the other religions like Islam, Christianity, Judaism as well as such creeds as the schools of Mani (Mani (216–274 AD), of Iranian origin was the prophet and the founder of Manichaeism, a gnostic religion of late antiquity which was widespread but no longer prevalent by name. Mani’s teaching was intended to succeed and surpass the teachings of Christianity, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism. It is based on a rigid dualism of good and evil, locked in eternal struggle.) and Mazdak.( Mazdak (524 or 528) was a Zoroastrian mobad (priest), Iranian reformer, prophet and religious activist who gained influence during the reign of the Sasanian emperor Kavadh I(488-531 AD). He claimed to be a prophet of Ahura Mazda and instituted communal possessions and social welfare programs. He has been seen as a proto-socialist.) Some believe that one can find streaks of Zurvanism in this book.

The book three of Denkart is voluminous as compared to other book and contains 420 chapters each one of which begins with “according to Zoroastrian religion” following the title. Of course, in some chapters the word “religion” is omitted. This phrase is an emphasis on the fact that this book is based on Zoroastrian beliefs and Divine Word ( Tafazoli :131)

.Some chapters of the book are short and some others are comparatively lengthier. Sometimes it is seen that some chapters are repeated and this is seemingly a sign of the application of oral literature. In most of the chapters there is no relation between the chapters; only it seems that sometimes a sentence or a word in a chapter is further elaborated in next chapter. Apparently, the author was informed of other religions particularly Islam and it denominations like Mutazilism and has leveled criticisms against them. In chapter 135 the name of the Holy Prophet of Islam is mentioned as payāmbarānāvišt, i.e. the Last of Prophets.

The fourth book of Denkart is the shortest of all books and at the same time it is hardest to understand. The fourth Denkart is a selection of “Book of Religion” by Azar Faranbagh Farokhzadan. This book does not have the consistency of the third book and it is more sophistical instead of being logical. The book starts with a philosophical description of the creation of “Aməša Spənta” and the manifestation of each from the other and finally the manifestation of Ahuramazda.

The fifth book is probably authored by Azarbad Emedan. This book despite its philosophical similarity with the third book contains weaker arguments and since the fifth Denkart is an expression of Zoroastrian religion to two non-Zoroastrians it is more polemical and it is clearly nationalistic ( Tafazoli& Jale Amasgar :131). This book can be divided into two major parts. First part contains the answers that Azar Faranbagh Farokhzadan has given to the questions of a man called “Yaqub Khalidan”. The second part of book presents the answers that Azar Faranbagh Farokhzadan has given to a Christian man called “Bokht Mari”. Eleven chapters are devoted to metaphysics, three chapters to divine inspiration, four chapters to worship, and thirteen chapters to purification rituals. The sixth book can be considered to be a book of wise words in Pahlavi which is in turn the largest available advice book in Pahlavi and has almost 35000 words. This book is not authored by a single writer.

The sixth Denkart is the simplest of all books of Denkart in respect of its writing style and contains advices that are attributed to ancient sages (Duchesne-Guillemin:86). Probably this book is a commentary of one part

of Avesta called “Barish Nasak” that is a summary of the eighth book. This book is divided into six parts. The first part addresses religious themes focusing on piety and righteousness before the deities. The second part deals with such issues as the creation of Ahuramazda and Ahriman, reason, wisdom, moderation, excess and negligence. Some believe that the source of this part is Aristotelian ethics ( EncyclopediaIranica, Denkart: 284-289). (The third part also addresses the issues discussed in the second part but relying on practical ethics. Fourth part is concerned with various properties and actions. The fifth part contains the names of authors and moral parables and sixth part does also include wise words with various religious themes. This book is comparatively of lesser religious bent and is more focused on theoretical and practical ethics. Meanwhile it also deals with human conduct in more detailed fashion. Then one can consider it to be a moral and mystical work of Zoroastrian orientation. Among the issues that are discussed in this book one can refer to the necessity of knowledge of origin and return as the basis of religious outlook that leads to knowledge of religion as such and paves the ground for the disappearance of devils from this world.

The seventh book is indeed a history of Zoroastrianism from its beginning to its end and has been prepared based on three Nasks of Avesta: “Sepand Nask”, “Chehrdad Nask” and “Vishtasp Nask” (Tafazoli: 137). The original manuscripts of these three Nasks are not available anymore and only there is a summary of them in the eighth book of Denkart. The themes discussed in this book regarding the myth of Zoroaster are comparable with the second part of third Denkart, chapters 2-26 of Zad Speram and 47 Pahlavi narrations.

The eighth book is a summary of Sassanid Avesta some Nasks of which are not available today. The compiler of this work is probably Azarbad Emedan. He has divided the book based on “Ahunavar” into three major parts each one of which is divided into seven further chapters. These three books consist of Gahanik (seven Nasaks of Gahan), Hadek Mansirik (a collection of regulations that are exclusively dealing with rituals) and Dadik (that deals with legal issues). Dadik is the most important part of eighth book that is more concerned with criminal laws and agricultural lands. (Given the importance of translating this book, “Casartley” translated the chapters of the third book for the first time. “Domnaz” has also translated the entire third book. West also translated part of the fifth book and the seventh, eighth and ninth editions. Also, Mouleh has translated the seventh book and part of the fifth book. Jaleh Amozgar and Ahmad Tafazli also translated the fifth

edition of the Dinhardt. Sanjana has also translated the fifth book. Shaul Shaked also translated the sixth book. Flip-Ginou has also conducted valuable research around Dintek. Fereydoun Fazillet also Trans the third book into Persian.)

The ninth book is a commentary of three Nasks of “Sutkar Nask”, “Varasht Mansrik” and “Bagh Nask”. These three Nasks represent an interpretation of three significant Zoroastrian prays: Ahunavar, Asham Vahu and Yenge Hatam. Sutkar Nask has 22 chapters. From chapter 1 to chapter 13 themes are mostly regarding advices and from chapter fourteen onward various issues like the story of Garshasb, fire and seven immortal kings, Jamshid, Zahak, Fereydoon, Kavoos and Keykhosrow.

“Varasht Mansrik” does also have 23 chapters and provides a summary of the life of Zoroaster as well as his talks with Ahuramazda. Moreover, there are also talks of his relatives. Rejection of the belief of Zurvanism that Ahuramazda and Ahriman have been born from the same mother is also part of this Nask. Other cases as allusion to Mani and part of the story of Kyoomarth constitute parts of this section of book. Furthermore, the author has related the story of presentation of religion to Jamshid, Freydoon, Kiarash and Garshasb and their refusal of its acceptance. Some historians believe that after the agonies that Zoroaster the son of Azar Faranbagh underwent through Denkart was distorted and Avesta and its commentaries were forgotten (Mushkor: 12-17). Of course, the man to whom Ibn Nadim refers as “Hud Ibn Farokhzad” could be this Artur Faranbagh ( Ibn Nadim believes that he is the author of a book entitled “Sirat Nameh” that is about the traditions and news of Zoroastrianism. It is estimated that this work is what we know as Denkart ( Ibn Nadim:378) .

Shikand Gumanig Vizar

In the ninth century A.D. – first half of third century – during the reign of Ma’mun the Abbasid Caliph a man called “Mardan Farokh Urmazd Datan” prepared a treatise based on the scattered pieces entitled “Shikand Gumanig Vizar” or “Doubt Breaking Report”. This book is in Pahlavi and one of the significant books of Zoroastrians. This book seeks to substantiate the foundations of Zoroastrianism and refutes Judaism, Christianity, Manavism, and partly Islam. In this book the author struggles to resort to philosophical problems in order to refute other religions in defense of Zoroastrianism and helps us to be introduced into the philosophical and religious beliefs of Iranians. Moreover, researchers have succeeded with the assistance of this book in understanding philosophical words in Pahlavi. The author of this book has taken advantage of rationally

consistent arguments to defend Zoroastrianism. In his book he speaks of the past people in good language and notes that this book is the fruit of the seed that was once sowed by such people as Azarbad the son of Mehr Spand amd Azar Faranbagh the son of Farokhzad (Hedayat: 54). This Pahlavi work shows that even after the invasion of Arabs some people stayed and did not leave their land and continued their life under the banner of the new official religion and made sincere efforts to preserve and defend their religious beliefs. The studies conducted by Fereydoon Fazilat on the scope of Denkart show that there is a close relationship between “Mardan Farokh” and “Azarbad the son of Emed” the last editor of Denkart insofar as the ninth Fargard of Shikand Gumanig Vizar should be considered as a lost piece of the third book of Denkart whose Farnameh exists in Denkart and its text is available in ninth Fargard of Shikand Gumanig Vizar(E. W. West) . In fact, the result that is reached by Mardan Farokh in this treatise is that there is a God who is the source of virtues and vices are from another source. Priests transferred this knowledge to next generations but this work was beyond the public understanding. Tafazoli believes that this book has been written for the more general class and Denkart is for a more specific class (Tafazoli:163). Mardan Farokh in this book answers the questions a Zoroastrian called Mehryar the son of Mahmad Esfahani. A Zoroastrian author believes that these questions are raised out of good will and since they date back to times after the arrival of Islam to Iran there is no mention of Islam but there are objections to Quran ( Gozaresh-e Kamanshekan : 5) .

Mādigān-ī Hazār Dādestān

Madigan-I Hazar Dadestan means “book of thousand judicial opinions” and it is a book in middle Persian concerning legal procedure in Iran in Sassanid era and is one of nonreligious books that is available in Pahlavi and reveals legal background of Iranians. Reflection on this book shows that codification of law is not just restricted to Rome. This book is written in Sassanid Pahlavi in the first half of seventh century A.D. during the reign of Khosrow Parviz (559-628 A.D.) in Sassanid Iran in Gur-e Firuz Abad that was then the center of Fars Province (Kaka Afshar:141-242). Its author Farokh Mard Bahraman is a judge of the time of Khosrow Parviz who lived in the Gur City and he and his father (Bahram) severed the judicial system of Sassanids and had access to judiciary documents. In the introduction, he wrote:

“By citation of a number of laws I wanted to show the nobility, goodness and firmness of legislators that have their origin in human efforts and the force of thought and God-given reason. I hope in doing this I would succeed to put an end to lying and dishonesty…”

Farokh Mard Bahraman has reviewed the verdicts issued in the courts of Sassanid era from third century to seventh century A.D. and presented them in shorter versions in his book (Kaka Afshar: ibid). This book casts light on legal areas of Sassanid era like ownership, contract (contractual relations), form of society and its institutions, criminal law, legal procedure, as well as judicial proceedings, and preparation of official documents. This book is of importance for study of the legal codes of Christian communities of Sassanid era and also the study of Babylonian Talmud that explains the legal system of Jewish communities that lived within the territory of Sassanid Empire .It also helps us to better know a number of the early Armenian religious terms and literature (The book has not yet been fully translated into Persian, but in the world there are 4 full translations of it: two English translations, a German translation and a Russian translation. This book was published by Sohrab Jamshid Jay Bolsara with a glossary and index in English and Houshang Ancalsariya was published in 1937 (1316 solar). Anahit Perikhanian translated the English version of the book “The Maticans of the Thousand Detstans” in 1997, published in California.

Jurisdictions of Zādspram

Zadspram is the name of one of the influential Zoroastrian figure who was the minister of Sirkan (Sirjan) and lived in ninth and tenth centuries (881). He was born in a clerical family. His father Gušn-Jam Shapuran or as some suggest Juwanjam was known as the leader of the righteous. Zadspram was well-versed in religious and scientific issues of his own time and in the book more relies on his own ideas and substantiates them with the words of past prophets and wise men ( Rashed Mohassel:4).

This book, generally speaking, is an intellectual and spiritual summary of some myths, beliefs and Sassanid religious system. Some have divided this book into three parts and believe that the goal of this book is the explanation of three historical periods of the world history. First period is cosmic stage the second period is related to the life of Zoroaster and the third period is reconstruction. Of course Ginioux and Tafazulli have divided this book into four parts and we have also used their method in our

explanation. The second part of the book contains the chapter four to twenty-eight that is regarding Zoroastrianism. Chapter four is about the emergence of religion in various times that is similar to the first chapter of Denkart VII. The first part includes chapters one to three on Mazdaei cosmology and other aspects of creation. In this part the invasion of Ahriman to the archetypes of heptafold creatures, i.e. heavens, water, earth, plant, cow, Giumarth and contamination, is explained in a very interesting way. The third part covers the chapters twenty-nine to thirty three that are about constitutive elements of human existence and other issues. Fourth part includes the chapters thirty-four to thirty-five and is about eschatology and reconstruction and unfortunately has droppings (Gignoux, ZĀDSPRAM).

Dādestān ī Dēnīg:

Dadestani Denig is one of the treatises authored by Manuchehr and stands for one of the religious Zoroastrian encyclopedias in Middle Persian. Dadestan Denig means religious rules and is one of the key works in Pahlavi in ninth century. As it is clear from the title this work is devoted to the religious creeds and issues as well as Zoroastrianism. This book provides answers to ninety two questions that are raised by the son of “Artur Mehan” which are addressed by Hirbod Khoday. This treatise is authored in 881 A.D. Manuchehr has revealed his intelligence in the answers that he has given to the question and he is defending the spirit of tolerance in errors (Safa: 54). Through these questions and answers various issues including the principles of Zoroastrian Creed as well as religious myths are discussed. This book has a complicated prose and is of significance in view of the problems that Muslims were grappling with in third century of Hijra(Tafazoli:155) .

Rivāyatī Ēmēdī Ašawahištān

Following the revival of Iranian identity by priests almost one century later, i.e. tenth century A.D., Emedi Ashawahishtan, one of the high ranked Zoroastrian clerics answered the ambiguities of people confronting the expansion of relations between Zoroastrians and Muslims.

This work is a set of religious, social and civil laws of Zoroastrians and a reliable reflection of the beliefs of Sassanid Iran. The narrative of Emedi Ashwahishtan is considered to be the fourth and last narrative of the Pahlavi traditions of post-Islamic priests. The narrative of Emedi Ashwahishtan contains 44 questions that were raised by a Mobed called

Azargoshnasb the son of Mehr Atash. Arabic “Rivayat” in the title of this book and other similar works has been used by the Zoroastrian editors of post-Islamic era in lieu of Pahlavi “Nigez”.The narrative of Emedi Ashwahishtan deals with various issues like family law, types of marriage, purification and so on and so forth. There is only one manuscript of this work that belongs to Tahmuis Dinshah Ankilsaria (N. Safa-Isfehani:different page)

Translation of Khwadāy-Nāmag:

Khwaday Namag in the sense of “book of kings” is the most important work of Sassanid era in which the names of the kings of Iranian dynasties along with their adventures have been recorded in the language of myth. The original Pahlavi version of Khwaday Namag is not available. The translations of Khwaday Namag into Arabic and probably its original Pahlavi have inspired the authors of Book of Kings including Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh in tenth century. In past times Shahnameh was the general title for all books that were written as to ancient stories. The title Khwaday Namag has been cited in many ancient Islamic works including Al-Fihrist by Ibn Nadim(IBN-Al-Nadīm:132) , History of Hamze Esfahani, ( 1982) Al-Tanbih Masud(1986)i, Al-Bada va al-Tarikh by Moqadas(2006)i and History of Bal’ami. The Khwaday Namag whose Arabic translation was published later is the work that was revised and edited during the reign of Yazdgerd III (632-652 A.D.). However, some major events during the reign of Yazdgerd should have been authored after the military defeat of Iran by Muslims. Pahlavi Khwaday Namag was translated into Arabic for several times in the eighth and tenth centuries. Today none of these translations is available. Abu Muhammad Abdullah Ibn Muqafa translated a number of Pahlavi works including Khawday Namag into Arabic.

Translation of Ibn Muqafa that was known in early Islamic centuries under such titles as Siar al-Muluk, Trikh Muluk al-Furs, Shahnameh was not indeed a direct translation from Pahlavi into Arabic rather in it translation and commentary were combined and some non-epic and non-Iranian themes were included in it. Ibn Muqafa was seemingly struggling to delete the themes that would arouse the religious emotions of Muslims in order to provide a tenable narrative of Iranian history for the contemporaries “second century” (Noldeke: 22). That Hamza Esfahani has said that Ibn Muqafa has not translated parts of Khwaday Namag perhaps endorses this point. After Ibn Muqafa the oldest ones whose names until third century were included among the translators of Khwaday Namag are:

Muhammad Ibn Jaham Barmaki, Zadvyah Ibn Shahuya Esfahani, Muhammad Ibn Bahram Ibn Mityar (Mehran) Esfahani, Husham Ibn Qasim Esfahani, Bahram Ibn Mardan Shah, Farkhan Mobed of Yazdgerd the King, Ramin Bande Yazdgerd the King, and Musa Ibn Isa Kasrawi (Al-Biruni: 305).

Conclusion

In the end, one needs to say that Zoroastrian priests after the arrival of Islam insisted on the preservation and expansion of Iranian heritage and did not accept the foreign elements. This issue is the case with both religion and culture and writing system and language. These works all of which were authored some centuries after the arrival of Islam contain a set of explanations of religious doctrines, answers to Zoroastrian questions, denial of objections of heretics, showing the legitimacy of Zoroastrianism and debasing the rival religion, information as regards beliefs and historical myths that reveal the conditions of Zoroastrianism in ninth and tenth centuries. In fact one can say that Zoroastrianism was powerful until the eighth century and many Pahlavi works that are now lost existed then. The existence of these books shows that Arabs were not directly responsible for the disappearance of these books In fact, after the conversion of Zoroastrians to Islam and their turning to minorities the religious literature, which was once of daily use, started to disappear. The disappearance of these works was more due to the lack of new editions of the manuscripts than their destruction by Arabs because paper manuscripts did not last more than 5-6 centuries. Of course translation of Pahlavi books into Arabic was one of the factors that strengthened the religious emotions of Iranians even the newly converted Muslims. Translation movement started by Dazbeh the son of Azargoshnasb better known as Ibn Muqafa.

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