Encyclopedia of Religion, Faith, and Beliefs (12-Volume): History, Theology, Politics, and Conflict with Science

History of Religion: From Ancient Beliefs to Modern Vatican Politics

Religion is a complex and multifaceted human phenomenon that has evolved over tens of thousands of years, shaping civilizations, cultures, moral systems, and political institutions across the globe. At its core, religion may be defined as a structured system of beliefs, practices, and symbols centered on the understanding of the sacred and the transcendent, often involving a relationship between humans and divine or supernatural forces. Archaeological evidence from sites such as Göbekli Tepe in present-day Turkey, dated to around 9600 BCE, suggests that organized forms of ritualistic behavior and proto-religious activity existed even before the advent of agriculture, indicating that religion may have been foundational in the development of early human societies rather than a byproduct of them.

The earliest known religious systems were predominantly animistic, involving the belief that natural objects such as trees, rivers, and animals possessed spiritual essence. Over time, these systems evolved into more structured forms such as polytheism, exemplified by ancient civilizations like Mesopotamia (c. 3000 BCE), Ancient Egypt (c. 2600 BCE), and the Saraswati-Sindhu Valley (c. 2500 BCE). These societies developed elaborate pantheons of gods and established priesthoods that acted as intermediaries between the divine and the populace. Temples such as the Ziggurats of Mesopotamia and the pyramids of Egypt were not merely architectural achievements but also centers of religious authority and economic power.

The transition from polytheism to monotheism marks a significant turning point in the history of religion. The emergence of Judaism around 1200 BCE in the Levant introduced the concept of a single, omnipotent deity. This idea profoundly influenced later religious traditions, including Christianity, which emerged in the 1st century CE in the Roman province of Judea, and Islam, founded in the 7th century CE in the Arabian Peninsula. These Abrahamic religions emphasized moral codes, sacred texts, and the idea of divine revelation. The compilation of texts such as the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament, and the Qur’an played a crucial role in shaping theological doctrines and guiding social behavior.

Parallel to these developments, the Indian subcontinent witnessed the evolution of Hinduism, one of the oldest continuously practiced religions, with roots tracing back to the Vedic period (c. 4500–500 BCE). Hinduism, which is a part of Sanatan Dharma, is characterized by a diversity of beliefs and practices, including concepts such as dharma, karma, and moksha. Around the 6th century BCE, Arhat movements led to the emergence of Buddhism, modified by Sakya Prince Siddhartha of Gautama Gotra in northeastern India, and Jainism (Older than Siddhartha`s modified Buddhism), associated with Parshanath to Mahavira. These traditions challenged the ritualism of Vedic religion and emphasized ethical conduct, meditation, and liberation from the cycle of rebirth.

The academic study of religion, often referred to as religious studies, began to take shape as a distinct discipline in the 19th century, particularly in European universities such as Oxford, Cambridge, and the University of Berlin. Scholars like Max Müller (1823–1900), a philologist and Orientalist, contributed significantly to the comparative study of religions through his work on sacred texts and mythologies. Religious studies is inherently interdisciplinary, incorporating methods from anthropology, sociology, history, philosophy, and psychology to analyze religious phenomena without necessarily affirming or denying their truth claims. This distinguishes it from theology, which is the systematic study of the nature of the divine, often conducted within the framework of a particular religious tradition.

Theology (See Christian Theology) has historically been central to the intellectual life of religious institutions. Medieval European universities such as the University of Paris and the University of Bologna placed theology at the apex of the academic hierarchy. Figures like Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) attempted to reconcile faith with reason, particularly through the integration of Aristotelian philosophy with Christian doctrine. In the Islamic world, institutions such as Al-Azhar University, founded in 970 CE in Cairo, became centers for theological scholarship and legal interpretation (fiqh). Similarly, Nalanda University in ancient India (c. 5th century CE) served as a hub for Buddhist philosophy and education. (See Vedic theology)

The phenomenon of religious conversion has played a crucial role in the spread and transformation of religions. Conversion may occur through personal conviction, social pressure, political influence, or missionary activity. The so-called conversion of Emperor Constantine to Christianity in 312 CE marked a pivotal moment in the history of the Roman Empire, leading to the Edict of Milan in 313 CE, which granted religious tolerance. Similarly, the spread of Islam across North Africa and parts of Europe between the 7th and 10th centuries involved both conquest and conversion. In South Asia, the Bhakti and Sufi movements between the 12th and 17th centuries facilitated the spread of devotional practices that transcended rigid religious boundaries.

The politics of religion has been a persistent feature throughout history, often manifesting in the intertwining of religious authority and state power. In medieval Europe, the Roman Catholic Church wielded immense influence over political affairs, culminating in events such as the Investiture Controversy (11th–12th centuries) between the papacy and the Holy Roman Emperors. The concept of Vatican politics, referring to the internal and external political activities of the Holy See, has been particularly significant since the establishment of the Vatican City as an independent state in 1929 through the Lateran Treaty. The papacy has historically engaged in diplomatic relations, influenced international policy, and navigated complex internal dynamics, often under the guise of religious authority.

The use of religion (Christians ~29%, Muslims ~25%, Hindus ~17%, Buddhists ~7%, folk religions ~6%, unaffiliated ~16%, others ~1% as of recent 2026s estimates) as a tool for political mobilization is evident in numerous historical contexts. The Crusades (1095–1291), initiated by Pope Urban II, were framed as religious wars to reclaim the Holy Land but also served political and economic interests. In more recent history, the role of religion in the formation of nation-states is evident in the partition of India in 1947, where religious identity played a central role in the creation of India and Pakistan. Similarly, the Iranian Revolution of 1979 demonstrated how religious ideology could be harnessed to overthrow a secular regime and establish a theocratic state.

The relationship between religion and science has been a subject of intense debate, particularly since the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries. Figures like Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) faced opposition from religious authorities for advocating heliocentrism, which contradicted traditional interpretations of scripture. The publication of Charles Darwin’s “On the Origin of Species” in 1859 further challenged religious views on creation, leading to ongoing debates about evolution and intelligent design. While some scholars argue that religion and science address fundamentally different questions—science focusing on empirical observation and religion on meaning and purpose—others contend that the two are inherently incompatible. Religion and science are two different things and cannot stay together. Scientific Religion is a misconception. In indian Experience, the place of Dharma is above faith and belief system; Dharma can not be translated as Religion. Nonetheless, religion is regimentation.

Despite their differences, religious institutions, churches, and political parties share notable structural and functional similarities. All three involve organized groups with hierarchical leadership, codified doctrines or ideologies, mechanisms for membership and participation, and strategies for influence and expansion. A church, as a religious institution, often functions as a community center, moral authority, and administrative body. A religious group may operate on a smaller scale but still maintains shared beliefs and practices. Political parties, while secular in nature, similarly mobilize individuals around a set of principles and seek to exercise power within a governance framework. The use of symbols, rituals, and narratives is common across these entities, serving to reinforce identity and cohesion.

Throughout history, universities have played a critical role in the study and dissemination of religious knowledge. The University of Paris in the 12th century became a center for scholastic theology, while institutions like Harvard University, founded in 1636, initially aimed to train clergy. In the modern era, departments of religious studies have expanded to include critical and comparative approaches, often emphasizing secular analysis. Institutions such as the University of Chicago, with its Divinity School established in 1892, have been at the forefront of interdisciplinary research in religion.

Religious Philosophy

Religious philosophy is often presented as a bridge between faith and reason, yet historically, religion has frequently claimed its validity by drawing upon philosophical traditions rather than arising from them independently. In periods when science and Scientific Principles had not yet emerged as a systematic discipline of knowledge, Christianity—particularly from the early centuries CE through late antiquity—appropriated elements of Greek and Latin philosophy, especially from thinkers like Plato and Aristotle, to construct arguments for its rationality and doctrinal coherence. This intellectual borrowing allowed theological doctrines to appear logically grounded, even when they rested on supernatural claims that fall outside empirical or philosophical verification. Religion has often invoked both philosophy and science as legitimizing frameworks, at times functioning as a cover for beliefs that cannot be substantiated within either domain; for instance, doctrines such as the Virgin Birth or bodily resurrection cannot be validated through biological science nor rigorously justified through philosophical reasoning.

In this sense, religion may also be interpreted as operating alongside, or even within, the structures of political power, at times resembling an extension of military or political organization, where belief systems reinforce authority and social control. The human tendency to create compound expressions—such as political philosophy, medical philosophy, religious philosophy, or military philosophy—often reflects attempts to frame specialized domains within broader intellectual traditions, though philosophy itself remains a systematic and foundational inquiry deeply embedded in the total knowledge structure of a civilization or society. Thus, Greek society was profoundly shaped by Greek philosophy, Roman society by its own legal and philosophical traditions, and the Vedic civilization by the philosophical framework of Dharma, Karma, Kama, and Moksha, which in turn informed auxiliary systems such as education, military practices, agriculture, trade, and services.

The global landscape of religion continues to evolve, shaped by the Vedic Civilisational experience from ancient times to the 21st century, and onward, influenced by factors such as globalization, migration, technological advancement, and secularization. While traditional forms of religious practice persist, new persons, movements, and interpretations emerge, reflecting changing social dynamics. The rise of Yoga and interfaith dialogue initiatives seeks to promote understanding and cooperation among different religious traditions, particularly in response to conflicts rooted in religious differences.

Encyclopedia of Religion, Faith, and Belief Systems: From Prehistory to 2026

Volume 1: Foundations – Definitions, Methods, and Prehistoric Origins (c. 2.5 million years ago–3000 BCE)

Expanded with new subsections on belief formation and early symbolic systems.

Core concepts: Expanded definitions of religion (Durkheim, Eliade, Tillich, plus cognitive science updates); faith (pistis, shraddha, iman, plus 2026 psychological studies on conversion triggers); belief systems vs. worldview; spirituality; animism; totemism; shamanism; magic vs. religion; proto-religious cognition (theory of mind, agency detection).
History of religious studies: Full comparative mythology, phenomenology, sociology, psychology, anthropology, plus digital humanities and AI-assisted analysis of ancient texts.
Prehistoric religions: Detailed Paleolithic (Lascaux/Chauvet art, Venus figurines, burial rites, afterlife beliefs); Neanderthal evidence; Neolithic (Göbekli Tepe rituals, Çatalhöyük ancestor cults, Stonehenge alignments); global shamanism (African, Australian, Siberian rock art); early symbolic language and faith emergence, early agriculture-linked beliefs (earth mothers, sky gods); shamanic practices evidenced by rock art; global patterns (African, Australian, Siberian evidence).

Volume 2: Ancient Civilizations – Near East, Egypt, Mediterranean, and Europe (c. 4000 BCE–500 CE)

Mesopotamian: Sumerian (Anu, Enlil, Inanna; Epic of Gilgamesh); Babylonian/Assyrian (Marduk, Ishtar; Code of Hammurabi religious laws).
Ancient Egyptian: Polytheism (Ra, Osiris, Isis, Horus); afterlife (Book of the Dead, pyramids); pharaonic divinity; Akhenaten’s monotheistic experiment (Aten).
Canaanite/Phoenician/Hebrew precursors: Baal, El, Asherah; early Yahwism.
Hittite, Persian (early Zoroastrian influences), Anatolian.
Greek: Olympian pantheon (Zeus, Athena); mystery cults (Eleusinian, Dionysian, Orphic); philosophy-religion overlap (Plato, Aristotle).
Roman: State cult (Jupiter, Mars); imperial deification; mystery religions (Mithraism, Isis cult).
Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, Baltic paganism: Druids; runes; gods (Odin, Thor, Perun); festivals; conversion-era syncretism.
Etruscan, Minoan/Mycenaean, Illyrian.
Rig Vedic Devatas: Agni, Vishnu, Indra, Varun

Volume 3: Abrahamic Traditions – Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and Relatives (Expanded with Pentecostalism, Vatican Institutions)

Judaism: Tanakh, Talmud, Kabbalah; denominations; modern Israel; antisemitism to 2026.
Christianity: Jesus, New Testament, early councils; Eastern Orthodoxy; Roman Catholicism (detailed below); Protestant Reformation.
Pentecostalism/Charismatic Movement: Origins (Azusa Street Revival 1906); core theology (baptism in Holy Spirit, glossolalia, healing, prophecy); global explosion (663+ million adherents by 2025, fastest-growing segment at 1.25% annually, concentrated in Global South—Nigeria 75M, Brazil 70M); denominations (Assemblies of God, independent mega-churches); prosperity gospel debates; political influence (Latin America, Africa); 2026 statistics showing overlap with Evangelicals (420M+) and shift from Catholicism.
Roman Catholicism – Vaticanism and Politics: Doctrine of papal supremacy (Vaticanism); Holy See as sovereign actor (184 diplomatic relations); Pope Leo XIV’s 2025–2026 diplomacy (Jan 2026 address to diplomatic corps on global inequality/war; evaluation of Trump’s Gaza “Board of Peace” invitation); interfaith initiatives; persecution responses.
Vatican Banking and Investment: Institute for the Works of Religion (IOR, “Vatican Bank”); historical scandals (money laundering, Mafia ties); Francis-era reforms (transparency, Moneyval compliance); Pope Leo XIV’s Oct 2025 decree rolling back centralized investment control (allowing non-IOR banks for efficiency, correcting 2022 Francis law); asset management (~$6–8B historically), ethical investing, liquidity challenges.
Religious Fundraising: Peter’s Pence collection; global diocesan appeals; tithing parallels; 2026 digital campaigns; ethical guidelines post-scandals.
Islam: Sunni/Shia/Sufism; modern revivalism.
Related: Baha’i, Druze, Mandaeism; Gnostic offshoots.

Volume 4: Dharmic and Indian Traditions

Vedic Civilisation ( – 600 BCE): Dharma, Yagna, Brahma, Iswara, Gayatri

Hinduism (600 BCE – 2026): Vedic origins; Upanishads/Bhagavad Gita; Vishnu avatars, Shiva, Devi; Varnashram/dharma/karma/moksha; yoga, bhakti, tantra; denominations (Vaishnava, Shaiva, Smartism); modern (ISKCON, neo-Hinduism); festivals (Diwali, Holi).

Anti-Conversion Movement, protection of Cow, Vegetarianism and Vegetarian Restourant Chains
Kumbha Mela, Sannyasi Politician, Hindutva

Buddhism: Kashyap Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama; Four Noble Truths/Eightfold Path; Theravada/Mahayana/Vajrayana/Zen; texts (Tripitaka, sutras); key figures (Dalai Lama, modern teachers); spread to Asia/West; engaged Buddhism; mindfulness in 2026 secular contexts.

Jainism: Mahavira; ahimsa; asceticism; sects (Digambara, Svetambara).

Sikhism: Guru Nanak; Guru Granth Sahib; Khalsa; gurdwaras; Khalsh Panta, modern global diaspora

Volume 5: East Asian, Southeast Asian, and Syncretic Traditions

Korean (Shamanism, Cheondoism); Vietnamese (Caodaism, folk); Japanese new religions (Soka Gakkai, Tenrikyo); Southeast Asian (Balinese Hinduism, Burmese nat worship).

Taoism: Laozi/Tao Te Ching; yin-yang; immortality; deities; practices (alchemy, qigong).

Confucianism: Confucius/Analects; li/ren; ancestor veneration; state ideology; modern revivals.

Shinto: Kami; shrines; rituals; state Shinto history; contemporary.

Chinese folk/ popular religion: Ancestor worship; syncretism with Taoism/Buddhism/Confucianism; deities (Guanyin).

Religion in China, Christianity in China, Appointment of Dalai Lama
Governance in Tibbet

Volume 6: Indigenous, Traditional, and Folk Religions (Global)

African: Yoruba (orishas, Ifa); Vodou (Haitian, Louisiana); Santeria; Zulu; Dogon; thousands of ethnic systems (animism, ancestor cults, divination).
Native American/First Nations: Navajo (Holy People); Lakota (Wakan Tanka, Sun Dance); Inuit; Mesoamerican (Aztec, Maya deities/rituals); Amazonian.
Australian Aboriginal: Dreamtime; songlines; totems.
Pacific Islander: Polynesian (mana, tapu); Maori; Hawaiian.
Other folk: Chinese popular; Japanese folk; European survivals (e.g., Mari paganism); Central Asian shamanism.
Entries per group: Cosmology, spirits, rituals, taboos, colonial impacts, revitalization movements.

Volume 7: Other Historical and Extinct Traditions

Zoroastrianism (Ahura Mazda, Avesta; Parsis/ Iranians).
Manichaeism; Mithraism; ancient mystery cults.
Hellenistic syncretism; Gnosticism.
Pre-Islamic Arabian; ancient Indian non-Vedic.
Petra

Volume 8: New Religious Movements (NRMs), Esoteric, and Fraternal Traditions (Expanded with Freemasonry)

19th–21st century: Mormonism, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Scientology, Wicca, New Age, Rastafari.
Late 20th–2026: Soka Gakkai expansions; neo-shamanism; psychedelic religions (e.g., ayahuasca churches); Earthseed/Terasem-inspired (sci-fi influenced); digital/algorithmic faiths; Turing Church; Kopimism; various online syncretic groups; post-2020 wellness-spiritual hybrids (yoga/meditation as standalone); mentions of artistic/ritual NRMs like those in 2025 Poetic Faiths discussions.
Freemasonry: Origins (1717 Grand Lodge); degrees/rituals (symbolism of Supreme Architect, morality, charity); fraternal vs. religious status (requires belief in Supreme Being and soul immortality but non-sectarian); historical conflicts (Catholic bans since 1738, accusations of anticlericalism or rival “religion”); Anglo-American vs. Continental traditions; Co-Freemasonry (gender-inclusive); 2026 global membership and interfaith debates; influence on Enlightenment, U.S. founders.
Psychedelic, digital, UFO, and online syncretic faiths; post-2020 wellness movements.

Volume 9: Non-Theistic, Secular, and Philosophical Belief Systems

Atheism (new/old); agnosticism; humanism (secular/religious); freethought; rationalism.
Marxism/communism as quasi-religion; nationalism; scientism.
Existentialism (Sartre, Camus); nihilism; postmodern spirituality.
“Nones”/unaffiliated (stabilized ~30% in US by 2025–2026 per Pew/Gallup trends); spiritual-but-not-religious; “rise of nones” plateau debates.

Volume 10: Comparative and Thematic Studies (Heavily Expanded with Conversion and Religious Law)

Concepts: God/gods, afterlife, ethics, myth, ritual, symbol, sacred space.
Religious Conversion: Historical waves (Axial Age, colonial missions, Pentecostal surges); modern statistics (~10% of adults under 55 switched religions/none by 2025, highest in Latin America/Africa from Catholicism to Protestantism/Pentecostalism); psychological models (crisis, social networks); apostasy laws; digital/online conversion; 2026 trends (Global South growth, “churchless” rise in Latin America).
Religious Law: Comparative overview; Jewish Halakha (Talmudic derivation, rabbinic courts); Islamic Sharia (fiqh schools, application in states); Christian Canon Law (Catholic Code of 1983, Eastern codes, ecclesiastical tribunals); Hindu/Dharmic law; intersections with secular law; 2026 updates on blasphemy, family, and freedom cases.
Practices: Festivals, dietary laws, dress, initiation, death rites; new: Fundraising mechanisms across traditions (tithing, zakat, dana, Peter’s Pence).
Cross-religious: Gender/LGBTQ+, ecology, violence/peace, syncretism, fundamentalism; new: Economics of faith (banking, investment ethics).
Christianity and Women
Islam and Women
Judaism and Women
Women Burning in England: The Witchcraft Laws and Religious Executions

Volume 11: History, Institutions, and Study of Religion

Global timeline (prehistory–2026: Axial Age to Pope Leo XIV reforms, post-COVID shifts).
Institutions: Temples, churches, mosques; clergy; education; new: Vatican Curia structure, financial oversight bodies.
Scholars/methods: Eliade, Smith, Smart; fieldwork ethics; digital humanities in religious studies.
Catholic Bishop`s Conferences, Church Plantation

Volume 12: Interdisciplinary and Contemporary Issues (to April 2026)

Religion and society: Politics (US midterms/culture wars, Christian nationalism, global elections); law (religious freedom, blasphemy, church-state); science (evolution, cosmology, genetics); technology (AI ethics/faith tools, virtual reality worship, social media/TikTok spirituality, online communities); health/mental (faith healing, mindfulness apps, post-COVID rituals).
Social issues: Gender/LGBTQ+ (ordination debates, inclusion); race/ethnicity; economics/poverty; migration/diaspora.
Global challenges: Persecution (Christians in Nigeria, Uyghurs, Rohingya); interfaith dialogue; antisemitism rise (post-2023 spikes continuing); climate crisis/spiritual responses; extremism/terrorism.
2020s-specific: Religious “nones” stabilization vs. debated Gen Z revival (anecdotal surges in baptisms/Orthodoxy conversions vs. data showing steady identification); Pope Leo XIV’s first year (2025–2026 Catholic shifts); AI reshaping doctrine/worship; digital vs. institutional authority; health data vs. social media “healing”; US 250th anniversary cultural-religious tensions.
Religious Viewpoint of the Communist Party of China (2026)
Future projections: Possible entries on “Religion in 2030” scenarios, transhumanism, space colonization faiths.

Sarvarthapedia Conceptual Network: Encyclopedia of Religion

Core Concept: Religious Studies

Core Concept: Theology

Core Concept: Religious Philosophy

Core Concept: Philosophy

Core Concept: Greek Philosophy

Core Concept: Roman Philosophy

Core Concept: Vedic Philosophy

Core Concept: Dharma

Core Concept: Karma

Core Concept: Moksha

Core Concept: Religious Conversion

Core Concept: Politics of Religion

Core Concept: Vatican Politics

Core Concept: Religion and Science

Religious Studies

Theology

Nature of the Divine
Doctrinal Systems
Faith and Reason
Sacred Text Interpretation
Religious Institutions

Core Concept: Scientific Knowledge

Core Concept: Church

Core Concept: Religious Group

Spread of Religions

Islamic Expansion (7th–10th centuries)
Bhakti Movement (12th–17th centuries) ↔ ISKCON ↔ Hinduism in America
Sufi Traditions
Devotional Religion
Syncretism

Core Concept: Political Parties

Core Concept: Structural Similarities (Church, Religion, Politics)

Abrahamic Religions

Core Concept: Military and Religion

Core Concept: Religion and Revolution

Core Concept: Knowledge Systems of Civilisation

Core Concept: Interfaith Dialogue

Religious Cooperation
Conflict Resolution
Pluralism
Global Ethics

Core Concept: Universities and Religion

Alphabetical Index: Religion

Abrahamic Traditions (Vol. 3)
Afterlife Beliefs (comparative)
Agnosticism
Akhenaten and Atenism
Animism
Antisemitism (historical to 2026)
Apostolic Succession
Atheism (old and new)
Axial Age
Azusa Street Revival (1906)

Baha’i Faith
Baptism in the Holy Spirit
Bhagavad Gita
Bhagavad Maha Puranof Bopadeva
Buddhism (Theravada, Mahayana, Vajrayana; engaged Buddhism; mindfulness trends to 2026)
Burial Rites (Paleolithic to modern)

Canon Law (Catholic)
Çatalhöyük (Neolithic spiritual practices)
Catholicism, Roman (see also Vaticanism)
Celtic Paganism
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
Charismatic Movement (see Pentecostalism)
Chinese Folk Religion
Christianity (global statistics ~2.645 billion adherents in 2025/2026, ~32.3% of world population; shift to Global South)
Confucianism
Conversion, Religious (see Religious Conversion)
Creation Myths (comparative)

Dalai Lama
Dharma
Dharmic Traditions (Vol. 4)
Dreamtime (Australian Aboriginal)
Druids and Celtic Religion
Druze

Eastern Orthodoxy
Ecology and Religion
Ecumenism
Eliade, Mircea
Enlightenment and Religion
Ethics, Religious (comparative)
Evangelicalism

Faith (definitions across traditions)
Festivals and Calendars (comparative)
Five Pillars of Islam
Four Noble Truths
Freemasonry (Vol. 8): Origins (1717 Grand Lodge); degrees and rituals; symbolism of the Supreme Architect; belief in a Supreme Being; Anglo-American vs. Continental traditions; historical conflicts with Catholicism (papal bans since 1738, In eminenti apostolatus, Humanum Genus by Leo XIII); accusations of indifferentism and anticlericalism; Co-Freemasonry; modern membership and interfaith debates; Enlightenment influence.
Fundamentalism (comparative)

Gender and Religion
Germanic Paganism
Gilgamesh, Epic of
Glossolalia (speaking in tongues)
Gnosticism
Göbekli Tepe (earliest known ritual site)
God/Gods (monotheism, polytheism, panentheism)

Halakha (Jewish Religious Law)
Hinduism (Vedic origins; denominations; festivals; modern revivals; high retention rates)
Holy See (see Vaticanism and Politics)
Humanism (secular and religious)

Indigenous Religions (Vol. 6): African (Yoruba, Vodou, Santeria); Native American; Australian Aboriginal; Pacific Islander; revitalization movements.
Institute for the Works of Religion (see Vatican Banking)
Interfaith Dialogue
Islam (Sunni ~1.8 billion; Shia; Sufism; global estimates ~2 billion by 2026)
Israel and Judaism

Jagannath Cult of Puri District
Jainism
Jehovah’s Witnesses
Jesus of Nazareth
Jews Race and Nationality
Judaism (denominations; Kabbalah; modern/secular trends)

Kabbalah
Kami (Shinto)
Karma and Reincarnation
Khalsa (Sikhism)

Laozi and Tao Te Ching
Law, Religious (Vol. 10): Comparative overview; Jewish Halakha; Islamic Sharia (fiqh schools); Christian Canon Law (1983 Code); Hindu/Dharmic codes; intersections with secular law; blasphemy and family law cases to 2026.
Leo XIV, Pope (2025–2026 pontificate: diplomatic initiatives; financial reforms)

Magic vs. Religion
Maimonides
Mandaeism
Marxism as Quasi-Religion
Mesoamerican Religions (Aztec, Maya)
Mithraism
Mormonism (LDS)
Muhammad and Quranic Revelation
Mystery Cults (ancient)

New Age Movements
New Religious Movements (NRMs, Vol. 8)
“Nones”/Unaffiliated (~906 million globally in 2025, plateau trends)

Orishas (Yoruba)
Orthodox Christianity

Paleolithic Spirituality (cave art, Venus figurines)
Papacy (see Vaticanism)
Pentecostalism/Charismatic Movement (Vol. 3): Azusa Street origins; baptism in the Holy Spirit; glossolalia, healing, prophecy; global growth (~663–700+ million adherents by 2025/2026, fastest-growing Christian segment, ~1 in 4 Christians); prosperity gospel; political influence in Global South (Africa, Latin America); overlap with Evangelicals (~420 million).
Peter’s Pence (see Religious Fundraising)
Philosophy of Religion
Pilgrimage (comparative: Hajj, Kumbh Mela, Jerusalem)
Polytheism
Prehistoric Religions (Vol. 1)
Protestantism (Reformation to modern)

Quran and Hadith

Rastafari
Reformation, Protestant
Religious Conversion (Vol. 10): Historical waves (colonial, Pentecostal surges); modern statistics (~10% of adults under 55 switched faiths or to none; Christianity experiences net losses in some regions while gaining in Global South; high retention in Hinduism/Islam); psychological and social network models; apostasy laws; digital conversion trends to 2026.
Religious Fundraising: Tithing; zakat; dana; Peter’s Pence collection; global diocesan appeals; digital campaigns; ethical issues post-scandals.
Religious Studies (methodologies)
Ritual (comparative)
Roman Catholicism (see Catholicism)

Sacred Space and Time
Scientology
Shamanism
Sharia (see Religious Law)
Shinto
Sikhism
Sin and Redemption (comparative)
Soul Concepts
Sufism
Sunni Islam

Taoism
Tanakh and Talmud
Totemism
Transhumanism and Religion

UFO Religions
Upanishads

Vaticanism and Politics (Vol. 3): Papal supremacy; Holy See diplomacy (~184 relations); Pope Leo XIV’s 2025–2026 initiatives (global inequality, interfaith, persecution responses); Vatican as sovereign actor.
Vatican Banking and Investment: Institute for the Works of Religion (IOR, “Vatican Bank”); historical scandals; Francis-era centralization; Leo XIV’s 2025 motu proprio Coniuncta Cura reforms (repealing exclusive IOR control, allowing other accredited banks for efficiency; diversification of assets); transparency efforts; ethical investing; financial oversight updates to 2026.
Vedic Religion
Violence and Religion (comparative)
Vishnu Puran
Vodou

Wicca and Neopaganism
Women in Religion

Yin-Yang
Yoga Traditions

Zoroastrianism

Cross-Reference and Thematic Sections

Appendices: Global Adherence Statistics (2025/2026: Christianity ~2.645 billion; Islam ~2 billion; Hinduism ~1.1–1.2 billion; Buddhism ~500–560 million; Pentecostals/Charismatics significant subset); Glossary of Religious Terms (5,000+ terms); Timelines (prehistory–2026); Bibliographies.
See also: Syncretism; Fundamentalism; Ecology and Religion; AI and Faith (emerging 2020s entries); Persecution (global cases to 2026); Interfaith Initiatives.
Invention of Religion by Christians