Ethnic Diversity in Britain: Peoples, Languages and Religions
The modern population of the United Kingdom is the result of centuries of migration, conquest, empire, industrial expansion, war, and global trade. From the arrival of the Celts before Roman occupation to twenty-first century migration from Asia, Africa, Europe, and the Middle East, Britain developed into one of the world’s most ethnically diverse societies. The formation of the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707, followed by the expansion of the British Empire during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, connected the British Isles to nearly every continent. Many communities now established in England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland trace their presence to colonial links, labor shortages after the Second World War, refugee movements, and educational migration.
The largest ethnic population remains the English, numbering approximately 49.3 million, historically descended from Celtic Britons, Anglo-Saxons, Danes, and Normans. The Roman occupation of Britain began in 43 A.D., while Germanic tribes such as the Angles and Saxons settled during the fifth and sixth centuries after Roman withdrawal. The term “England” emerged from the “Angle-land” of the Angles. The Scots, numbering over 5.5 million, developed from the union of the Gaels and Picts during the early medieval period, establishing kingdoms in the ninth century. Welsh Cymraeg communities, around 573,000, preserved the ancient Brythonic Celtic language despite centuries of English political dominance. The Cornish, approximately 570,000, also descend from Celtic Britons and maintained cultural distinctions in Cornwall long after the English Reformation.
Migration from Ireland shaped Britain profoundly. The Irish population, estimated at 321,000, expanded rapidly during the Great Famine of 1845–1852, when starving Irish Catholics crossed to Liverpool, Glasgow, Manchester, and London. Smaller communities of Irish Gaelic-speaking people, about 42,000, preserved the Irish language, while nearly 950,000 Ulster Irish maintain identities linked to Northern Ireland and Protestant settlement traditions.
Industrial Britain attracted European settlers throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. German communities, approximately 145,000, descend partly from ancient Germanic tribes and later migrants arriving during Victorian industrialization. French residents number about 177,000, while Italian migration, especially after 1880, established communities in Clerkenwell, Glasgow, and Cardiff; around 188,000 Italians now live in Britain. Other European groups include Polish people, the largest recent European migrant population at roughly 834,000, many arriving after Poland joined the European Union in 2004. Significant populations also include Romanians (193,000), Lithuanians (171,000), Latvians (119,000), Hungarians (94,000), Slovaks (87,000), Bulgarians (65,000), Russians (60,000), Czechs (41,000), Ukrainians (39,000), Danes (29,000), Norwegians (19,000), Finnish (15,000), Estonians (15,000), Austrians (20,000), Swedes (43,000), Dutch (91,000), and Flemish (19,000) communities.
The decline of empire after 1945 encouraged migration from former British colonies. The broad category of South Asians, over 3.1 million, became one of Britain’s defining demographic transformations. Workers from India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh arrived to rebuild postwar industries and public transport systems. Gujarati Hindus, around 650,000, settled heavily in Leicester and northwest London. Punjabi populations include approximately 239,000 Eastern Punjabi Hindus and Sikhs and 52,000 Western Punjabi Muslims. Pakistanis in England, numbering over 1.5 million, became Britain’s second-largest ethnic minority, concentrated in Birmingham, Bradford, Manchester, and London. Many originate from Azad Kashmir and Punjab.
The Sylheti Bengali community represents one of the oldest South Asian Muslim populations in Britain. Originating in northeastern Bangladesh, Sylheti sailors and laborers settled in London’s East End during the early twentieth century. In the early 1950s, only about 300 Sylheti men lived in London; by 1962, the number exceeded 5,000. Today, more than 640,000 people of Bangladeshi descent live in England and Wales, including roughly 125,000 Sylheti speakers and 361,000 Bengali-speaking South Asians. Other South Asian groups include Tamil Hindus (128,000), Telugu speakers (33,000), Marathi-speaking Mahrattas (12,000), Kannada-speaking Kanarese (5,600), Kacchi Hindus (3,500), Nepalis (76,000), and Parsee Zoroastrians (4,500).
Migration from Africa accelerated after decolonization. Yoruba Nigerians, approximately 104,000, formed major communities in London and southeast England. Smaller Nigerian groups include Igbo (8,200). East African migration brought Somalis (183,000), many arriving after the Somali Civil War beginning in 1991. Shona Zimbabweans (22,000), Baganda Ugandans (53,000), Swahili-speaking East Africans (16,000), Krio Sierra Leoneans (19,000), Lingala speakers (5,100), and Wolof Senegalese (5,500) also settled in Britain. From Ethiopia and Eritrea came Amhara Ethiopians (8,900), Tigrinya speakers (13,000), and Tigre Eritreans (15,000). Southern African migration includes Afrikaners from South Africa, around 257,000, many arriving during the late apartheid era.
Britain’s Middle Eastern populations expanded through war, political exile, and educational migration. Since the 1940s, Britain accepted many Iraqi Arabs, especially dissidents fleeing authoritarian governments. Following the 2003 Iraq War, refugee migration increased sharply. Britain today contains approximately 73,000 Iraqi Arabs, alongside 49,000 Syrians, 52,000 Egyptians, 104,000 Lebanese Arabs, 35,000 Yemenis, 35,000 Moroccans, 24,000 Sudanese Arabs, 24,000 Saudi Najdis, 25,000 Libyans, and 21,000 Palestinians. Many belong to the wider historical grouping known as the Levant Arabs.
The Egyptian community reflects a long historical relationship between Egypt and Britain. After the Arab conquest of Egypt in 640 A.D., Arabic and Islam became dominant. Britain occupied Egypt from 1882 to 1914, primarily to secure access to the Suez Canal, completed in 1869. Egyptian students, professionals, and political migrants later established communities in London and Manchester.
Among the oldest Middle Eastern Christian populations are the Assyrians, approximately 14,000, whose ancestral homeland spans modern Iraq, Iran, Turkey, and Syria. Assyrians trace their heritage to ancient Mesopotamia and the Akkadian Empire of Sargon of Akkad. Over centuries, Aramaic languages replaced Akkadian speech while maintaining Assyrian identity. Britain also contains Armenians (21,000) and small communities of Mandaeans (1,100), followers of an ancient Gnostic religion originating in southern Iraq.
Migration from Muslim-majority regions includes Afghans (81,000) speaking Dari, Northern Pashtuns (55,000), Southern Pashtuns (50,000), Persians (73,000), Kurds (28,000), Tajiks (5,100), Turks (72,000), Turkish Cypriots (133,000), Albanians (48,000), Berber Kabyles (15,000), and Indonesians (11,000). Most migrated during the late twentieth century due to conflict, economic opportunity, or educational exchange.
East and Southeast Asian communities grew substantially after the Second World War. Britain’s Chinese population includes roughly 226,000 Cantonese speakers, 134,000 Mandarin speakers, and 30,000 Hakka speakers. Early Chinese sailors arrived in Liverpool and London during the nineteenth century, but larger migration waves followed the political changes in Hong Kong after 1949. Other Asian groups include Filipinos (156,000), Japanese (25,000), Koreans (12,000), Vietnamese (28,000), Thai (55,000), Khmer Cambodians (11,000), Malay Muslims (62,000), and Burmese Buddhists (15,000).
Communities linked to Britain’s wider Anglophone world include Americans (169,000), Anglo-Canadians (97,000), Anglo-Australians (96,000), and Anglo-New Zealanders (68,000). The United States originated from Britain’s thirteen colonies before declaring independence in 1776. Canada received major Loyalist migration after the American Revolution, especially from settlers wishing to remain within the British Empire. Australia became a penal colony beginning in 1788, later transformed by the 1851 gold rush and the formation of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901.
Britain also contains longstanding Jewish communities. Around 200,000 English-speaking Jews live in the country, alongside 33,000 Hasidic Jews, 25,000 Litvish Jews, and smaller Moroccan, Persian Mashadi, Persian Tehrani, Syrian, and Judeo-Iraqi Yahudic communities. Jewish settlement dates back to Norman England after 1066, although Jews were expelled in 1290 and formally readmitted under Oliver Cromwell in 1656.
Romani and Traveller populations preserve some of Britain’s oldest nomadic traditions. These include Balkan Romani (81,000), Vlax Romani (70,000), Welsh Romani (70,000), Scottish Travellers (4,600), and Irish Travellers (17,000). Romani ancestors originally migrated from northern India into Europe during the medieval era.
The ethnic landscape of the United Kingdom reflects more than two thousand years of movement across continents. Ancient Celtic kingdoms, Roman occupation, Viking settlements, imperial trade, industrial labor migration, colonial ties, refugee crises, and globalization all contributed to a society where hundreds of languages, religions, and historical identities coexist within a relatively small island state.
Sarvarthapedia Conceptual network: Ethnic Groups in the United Kingdom
Core Historical Concepts
British Isles
Connected to the development of the English, Scots, Welsh Cymraeg, Cornish, and Ulster Irish populations.
Roman Britain (43 A.D.–410 A.D.)
Influenced the formation of early British identity, urban settlements, and trade systems in England and Wales.
Anglo-Saxon Migration
Linked to the emergence of the English people, Old English language, and early English kingdoms.
Celtic Peoples
Associated with the Scots, Welsh, Cornish, and ancient Britons.
Norman Conquest (1066)
Reshaped English aristocracy, governance, and cultural identity.
Union of Crowns (1603)
Connected England and Scotland under one monarch.
Kingdom of Great Britain (1707)
Unified England and Scotland politically; foundational to modern British identity.
British Empire
Central node connecting migration from:
- South Asia
- Africa
- Caribbean
- Middle East
- Australasia
- North America
Post-World War II Migration
Connected to labor migration from:
Refugee and Asylum Migration
Linked to:
- Iraqis
- Afghans
- Somalis
- Syrians
- Kurds
- Assyrians
Indigenous and Historic Peoples
English
Related to:
- Anglo-Saxons
- Celts
- Romans
- Norman French
- Christianity
- English language
See also:
- Scots
- Welsh Cymraeg
- Cornish
- Ulster Irish
Scots
Connected to:
- Gaels
- Picts
- Celtic kingdoms
- Scottish Gaelic
- Lowland Scots
See also:
- Scot, Gaelic
- Scots, Lowland
- Irish Gaelic-speaking
Welsh Cymraeg
Linked to:
- Brythonic Celts
- Welsh language preservation
- Medieval Welsh kingdoms
See also:
- Cornish
- Celtic peoples
Cornish
Connected to:
- Celtic Britons
- Cornwall
- Brythonic language heritage
Irish and Celtic Diaspora
Irish
Related to:
- Great Famine (1845–1852)
- Catholic migration
- Industrial Britain
See also:
- Irish Gaelic-speaking
- Ulster Irish
- Scots
Irish Gaelic-speaking
Connected to:
- Gaelic revival
- Irish linguistic heritage
Ulster Irish
Linked to:
- Protestant settlement
- Northern Ireland
- British unionism
South Asian Communities
South Asian, General
Core links:
- British Empire in India
- Postwar labor migration
- Commonwealth migration
Connected ethnic clusters:
- Pakistani
- Gujarati
- Punjabi
- Bengali
- Tamil
- Nepali
Pakistanis in England
Connected to:
- Azad Kashmir
- Punjabi Muslims
- Birmingham
- Bradford
- Manchester
See also:
- Punjabi, Western
- South Asian Muslim communities
Bengali, Sylheti
Linked to:
- Sylhet region
- East London
- Bangladeshi migration
- Textile and restaurant industries
See also:
- South Asian, Bengali-speaking
- Islam in Britain
Gujarati
Connected to:
- Hindu merchant communities
- East African Asian migration
- Leicester diaspora
Punjabi
Split connections:
- Punjabi, Eastern → Hinduism/Sikh traditions
- Punjabi, Western → Islam/Pakistani identity
Tamil (Hindu Traditions)
Related to:
- Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora
- Hindu temples in Britain
Nepali
Connected to:
- Gurkha military history
- Himalayan migration
Parsee
Linked to:
- Zoroastrianism
- Bombay colonial networks
Middle Eastern and Islamic Communities
Arab Communities
Umbrella links:
- Levant Arabs
- Islam
- Colonial-era migration
- Refugee movements
Subgroups:
- Egyptian
- Iraqi
- Lebanese
- Palestinian
- Syrian
- Yemeni
- Moroccan
- Sudanese
Iraqi Arabs
Connected to:
- 2003 Iraq War
- Political exile
- Levant Arab cluster
See also:
- Assyrians
- Mandaeans
- Syrian Arabs
Egyptians in the UK
Linked to:
- Suez Canal (1869)
- British occupation of Egypt (1882–1914)
- Arabization of Egypt
Syrians
Connected to:
- Syrian Civil War
- Refugee migration
Yemenis
Linked to:
- Early Muslim seafaring communities
- Cardiff and South Shields ports
Afghans
Connected to:
- Soviet-Afghan War
- Taliban conflict
- Dari and Pashto languages
See also:
- Pashtun, Northern
- Pashtun, Southern
- Tajik
Persians
Related to:
- Iranian Revolution (1979)
- Student migration
- Persian language
Kurds
Connected to:
- Kurdish diaspora
- Turkey, Iraq, Syria
- Political displacement
Ancient Middle Eastern Christian Communities
Assyrians
Connected to:
- Akkadian Empire
- Ancient Mesopotamia
- Neo-Aramaic languages
- Christianity
See also:
- Iraqi Arabs
- Armenians
- Mandaeans
Armenians
Linked to:
- Armenian genocide diaspora
- Eastern Christianity
Mandaeans
Connected to:
- Southern Iraq
- Gnostic religion
- Neo-Mandaic language
African Diaspora Communities
Africans in Britain
Core links:
- Colonial migration
- Commonwealth migration
- Refugee movements
- Christianity and Islam
Major clusters:
- Yoruba
- Somali
- Shona
- Baganda
- Krio
Yoruba
Connected to:
- Nigerian migration
- Pentecostal Christianity
- London African communities
Somali
Linked to:
- Somali Civil War (1991–)
- Maritime migration
- East African Islam
Baganda
Connected to:
- Uganda
- East African diaspora
Krio, Sierra Leonian
Related to:
- Sierra Leone Creole identity
- British colonial history
Afrikaners
Connected to:
- South Africa
- Afrikaans language
- Apartheid-era migration
East and Southeast Asian Communities
Han Chinese
Subgroups:
- Cantonese
- Mandarin
- Hakka
Connected to:
- Hong Kong migration
- Chinese restaurants
- International education
Cantonese Chinese
Linked to:
- Hong Kong diaspora
- Liverpool and London Chinatown histories
Mandarin Chinese
Connected to:
- Mainland China migration
- Universities and finance sectors
Filipinos
Related to:
- NHS workforce migration
- Catholic communities
Japanese
Connected to:
- Corporate migration
- London financial sector
Vietnamese
Linked to:
- Vietnam War refugee resettlement
Thai
Connected to:
- Buddhism
- Hospitality industries
Khmer
Related to:
- Cambodian refugee migration
European Diaspora Communities
Polish
Connected to:
- World War II soldiers
- European Union enlargement (2004)
See also:
- Lithuanians
- Latvians
- Slovaks
Romanians
Linked to:
- EU free movement
- Construction and service industries
Germans
Connected to:
- Saxons
- Germanic tribes
- Victorian industrial migration
Italians
Related to:
- Ice cream trade
- Catholic migration
- Victorian Britain
French
Connected to:
- Norman heritage
- Huguenot refugees
Lithuanians and Latvians
Linked to:
- Baltic migration after 2004 EU expansion
Jewish Communities
Jewish, English-speaking
Connected to:
- Norman England
- Expulsion of Jews (1290)
- Readmission (1656)
Subgroups:
- Hasidic
- Litvish
- Moroccan Jewish
- Persian Jewish
- Syrian Jewish
Hasidic Jews
Linked to:
- Stamford Hill
- Orthodox Judaism
- Yiddish-speaking traditions
Yahudic Jews
Connected to:
- Judeo-Iraqi heritage
- Arabic-speaking Jewish communities
Romani and Traveller Communities
Romani Peoples
Connected to:
- Northern Indian origins
- Medieval European migration
- Nomadic traditions
Subgroups:
- Balkan Romani
- Vlax Romani
- Welsh Romani
Irish Travellers
Linked to:
- Shelta language
- Nomadic heritage
- Irish diaspora
Scottish Travellers
Connected to:
- Highland travel traditions
- Traveller Scottish dialects
Anglophone Diaspora Communities
Americans, U.S.
Connected to:
- Thirteen Colonies
- American Revolution (1776)
- Anglo-American relations
Anglo-Canadians
Linked to:
- Loyalists after 1783
- British Empire in Canada
Anglo-Australians
Connected to:
- Penal colonies (1788)
- Australian gold rush (1851)
Anglo-New Zealanders
Linked to:
- British colonial settlement
- Commonwealth migration
Religious Networks
Christianity
Major associated groups:
- English
- Scots
- Irish
- Polish
- Yoruba
- Filipinos
- Armenians
Islam
Major associated groups:
- Pakistanis
- Bangladeshis
- Arabs
- Somalis
- Afghans
- Turks
Hinduism
Connected to:
- Gujaratis
- Tamils
- Punjabis
- Nepalis
Buddhism
Associated with:
- Burmese
- Thai
- Khmer
- Japanese
- Vietnamese
Judaism
Connected to:
- English-speaking Jews
- Hasidic Jews
- Persian Jews
- Syrian Jews
Linguistic Networks
English Language Sphere
Connected populations:
- English
- Americans
- Anglo-Canadians
- Anglo-Australians
- Jamaicans
- Ulster Irish
Arabic Language Sphere
Connected groups:
- Egyptians
- Iraqis
- Lebanese
- Palestinians
- Syrians
- Sudanese
- Yemenis
South Asian Language Sphere
Includes:
- Punjabi
- Gujarati
- Bengali
- Sylheti
- Tamil
- Telugu
- Marathi
- Kannada
Celtic Language Sphere
Connected languages:
- Welsh
- Scottish Gaelic
- Irish Gaelic
- Cornish
Slavic Language Sphere
Includes:
- Polish
- Russian
- Ukrainian
- Bulgarian
- Slovak
Urban Settlement Networks
London
Major concentrations:
- Bangladeshis
- Nigerians
- Jews
- Arabs
- Chinese
- Romanians
Birmingham
Connected to:
- Pakistanis
- Punjabis
- Gujaratis
Bradford
Strong links:
- Pakistani communities
- Kashmiri migration
Manchester
Connected to:
- South Asians
- Irish
- Africans
Glasgow
Linked to:
- Irish Catholics
- Italians
- Scots Gaelic communities
Leicester
Connected to:
- Gujaratis
- East African Asians
- Hindus
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