Supreme Court Strikes Down Trump IEEPA Tariffs: Learning Resources v. Trump Analysis

U.S. Supreme CourtSupreme Court The Court of last resort. Supreme Court of India (26/01/1950), Supreme Court of the United States (1798), Supreme Court of UK (1/10/2009), Supreme Court of Canada (1949), International Court of Justice (22/05/1947), > Supreme Court Network Rules President Cannot Impose Tariffs Without Congress

TrumpPresident Trump A graduate of the University of Pennsylvania’s Wharton School of Finance. He followed in his father’s footsteps into the world of real estate development, making his mark in New York City. President Trump has five children, Barron, Don Jr., Ivanka, Eric, and Tiffany, as well as 10 grandchildren. Tariffs on China, Canada, and Mexico Struck Down by the American Supreme Court

IEEPA does not authorize the President to impose tariffs. The judgmentJudgment The statement given by the Judge on the grounds of a decree or order - CPC 2(9). It contains a concise statement of the case, points for determination, the decision thereon, and the reasons for such decision - Order 20 Rule 4(2). Section 354 of CrPC requires that every judgment shall contain points for determination, the decision thereon and the reasons for the decision. Indian Supreme Court Decisions > Law declared by Supreme Court to be binding on all courts (Art 141 Indian Constitution) Civil and judicial authorities to act in aid of the Supreme Court (Art 144) Supreme Court Network On Judiciary – Portal > Denning: “Judges do not speak, as do actors, to please. They do not speak, as do advocates, to persuade. They do not speak, as do historians, to recount the past. They speak to give Judgment. And in their judgments, you will find passages, which are worthy to rank with the greatest literature….” Law Points on Judgment Writing > The judge must write to provide an easy-to-understand analysis of the issues of law and fact which arise for decision. Judgments are primarily meant for those whose cases are decided by judges (State Bank of India and Another Vs Ajay Kumar Sood SC 2022) in No. 24–1287 is vacated, and the case is remanded with instructions to dismiss for lack of jurisdictionJurisdiction Authority by which courts receive and decide cases. Limited Jurisdiction: the authority over only particular types of cases, or cases under a prescribed amount in controversy, or seeking only certain types of relief, the District Court is a court of limited jurisdiction. Original Jurisdiction: Jurisdiction of the first court to hear a case.; the judgment in No. 25–
250 is affirmed.

In a landmark decision (6:3) with profound implications for the balance of powerPower The amount of energy transferred or converted per unit of time. In the International System of Units, the unit of it is the watt, equal to one joule per second. The capacity of energy infrastructure is rated using watts, which indicate its potential to supply or consume energy in a given period of time. A Power-plant rated at 100 MW has the potential to produce 100 MWh if it operates for one hour. between the Legislative and Executive branches, the Supreme Court of the United StatesSupreme Court of the United States The judicial Power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish.” – Article III, Section 1, United States Constitution. The Clerk receives documents for filing with the Court and has the authority to reject any submitted fling that does not comply with the Supreme Court Rules. The Clerk maintains the Court’s records and will not permit any of them to be removed from the Court building except as authorized by the Court. A Review of a writ of certiorari is not a matter of right but of judicial discretion. has held that the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA) does not authorize the President to unilaterally impose tariffs. In the consolidated cases LearningLearning Educational learning theories: Cognitive Learning Theory, Behaviorism Learning Theory, Constructivism Learning Theory, Humanism Learning Theory, Connectivism Learning Theory, Transformative Learning Theory, Social Learning Theory, Experiential Learning Theory. Resources, Inc. v. Trump and Trump v. V.O.S. Selections, Inc., the Court affirmed that the power to levy tariffs—a core component of Congress’s constitutional authority over taxation and revenue—cannot be inferred from the statuteStatute A formal written legal enactment by a sovereign law-making body (Νόμος) > National Constitutions > National Laws > Indian Laws’s general grant of authority to “regulate… importation.” This ruling, which strikes down the Trump administration’s imposition of broad-based tariffs on imports from Canada, Mexico, and China (including so-called “drugDrug Any substance (other than food) that is used to prevent, diagnose, treat, or relieve symptoms of a disease or abnormal condition. Drugs can also affect how the brain and the rest of the bodywork and cause changes in mood, awareness, thoughts, feelings, or behavior. Some types of drugs, such as opioids, may be abused or lead to addiction. Apart from management Allopathic drugs never cure any disease. trafficking” tariffs and “reciprocal” tariffs on trading partners), reinforces the foundational principle that significant economic powers must be explicitly delegated by Congress. The decision is a resounding victory for importers and businesses challenging the tariffs and sets a critical precedent limiting presidential power under emergency statutesStatute A formal written legal enactment by a sovereign law-making body (Νόμος) > National Constitutions > National Laws > Indian Laws.

The dispute arose from two sets of executive actions taken by President TrumpPresident Trump A graduate of the University of Pennsylvania’s Wharton School of Finance. He followed in his father’s footsteps into the world of real estate development, making his mark in New York City. President Trump has five children, Barron, Don Jr., Ivanka, Eric, and Tiffany, as well as 10 grandchildren. in early 2025. Citing an “unusual and extraordinary threat” to national security from the influx of illegal drugs, the President declared a national emergency and imposed a 25% duty on most Canadian and Mexican imports and a 10% duty on Chinese imports. Separately, to address “large and persistent” trade deficits, he declared another emergency and imposed a baseline 10% duty on imports from all trading partners, with higher rates for dozens of nations. The President asserted authority for these sweeping tariffs under Section 1702(a)(1)(B) of IEEPA, which permits the President, during a declared national emergency, to “regulate… importation… of… any property in which any foreign country or a national thereof has any interest.”

Two separate challenges to the tariffs were filed. In Learning Resources, two small businesses sued in the U.S. DistrictDistrict India has 800 districts under 29 federal states and 8 union territories. Adilabad Agar-Malwa Agra Ahilyanagar Ahmedabad Aizawl Ajmer Akola Alappuzha Aligarh Alipurduar Alirajpur Alluri Sitharama Raju Almora Alwar Ambala Ambedkar Nagar Amethi Amravati Amreli Amritsar Amroha Anakapalli Anand Ananthapuramu Anantnag Anjaw Annamayya Anugul Anuppur Araria Ariyalur Arvalli Arwal Ashoknagar Auraiya Aurangabad Ayodhya Azamgarh Bagalkote Bageshwar Baghpat Bahraich Bajali Baksa Balaghat Balangir Baleshwar Ballari Ballia Balod Balodabazar-Bhatapara Balotra Balrampur Balrampur-Ramanujganj Banas Kantha Banda Bandipora Banka Bankura Banswara Bapatla Bara Banki Baramulla Baran Bareilly Bargarh Barmer Barnala Barpeta Barwani Bastar Basti Bathinda Beawar Beed Begusarai Belagavi Bemetara Bengaluru Rural Bengaluru Urban Betul Bhadohi Bhadradri Kothagudem Bhadrak Bhagalpur Bhandara Bharatpur Bharuch Bhavnagar Bhilwara Bhind Bhiwani Bhojpur Bhopal Bichom Bidar Bijapur Bijnor Bikaner Bilaspur Bilaspur Birbhum Bishnupur Biswanath Bokaro Bongaigaon Botad Boudh Budaun Budgam Bulandshahr Buldhana Bundi Burhanpur Buxar Cachar Central Chamarajanagar Chamba Chamoli Champawat Champhai Chandauli Chandel Chandigarh Chandrapur Changlang Charaideo Charkhi Dadri Chatra Chengalpattu Chennai Chhatarpur Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar Chhindwara Chhotaudepur Chikkaballapura Chikkamagaluru Chirang Chitradurga Chitrakoot Chittoor Chittorgarh Chumoukedima Churachandpur Churu Coimbatore Cooch Behar Cuddalore Cuttack Dadra And Nagar Haveli Dahod Dakshin Bastar Dantewada Dakshin Dinajpur Dakshina Kannada Dhenkanal Dholpur Dhubri Dhule Dibang Valley Dibrugarh Didwana-Kuchaman Dima Hasao Dimapur Dindigul Dindori Diu Doda Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Konaseema Dumka Dungarpur Durg East East Garo Hills East Godavari East Jaintia Hills East Kameng East Khasi Hills East Siang East Singhbum Eastern West Khasi Hills Eluru Ernakulam Erode Etah Etawah Faridabad Faridkot Farrukhabad Fatehabad Fatehgarh Sahib Fatehpur Fazilka Ferozepur Firozabad Gadag Gadchiroli Gajapati Ganderbal Gandhinagar Ganganagar Gangtok Ganjam Garhwa Gariyaband Gaurela-Pendra-Marwahi Gautam Buddha Nagar Gaya Ghaziabad Ghazipur Gir Somnath Giridih Goalpara Godda Golaghat Gomati Gonda Gondia Gopalganj Gorakhpur Gumla Guna Guntur Gurdaspur Gurugram Gwalior Gyalshing Hailakandi Hamirpur Hamirpur Hanumakonda Hanumangarh Hapur Harda Hardoi Haridwar Hassan Hathras Haveri Hazaribagh Hingoli Hisar Hnahthial Hojai Hooghly Hoshiarpur Howrah Hyderabad Idukki Imphal East Imphal West Indore Jabalpur Jagatsinghapur Jagitial Jaipur Jaisalmer Jajapur Jalandhar Jalaun Jalgaon Jalna Jalore Jalpaiguri Jammu Jamnagar Jamtara Jamui Jangoan Janjgir-Champa Jashpur Jaunpur Jayashankar Bhupalapally Jehanabad Jhabua Jhajjar Jhalawar Jhansi Jhargram Jharsuguda Jhunjhunu Jind Jiribam Jodhpur Jogulamba Gadwal Jorhat Junagadh Kabeerdham Kachchh Kaimur (Bhabua) Kaithal Kakching Kakinada Kalaburagi Kalahandi Kalimpong Kallakurichi Kamareddy Kamjong Kamle Kamrup Kamrup Metro Kancheepuram Kandhamal Kangpokpi Kangra Kannauj Kanniyakumari Kannur Kanpur Dehat Kanpur Nagar Kapurthala Karaikal Karauli Karbi Anglong Kargil Karimganj Karimnagar Karnal Karur Kasaragod Kasganj Kathua Daman Damoh Dangs Darbhanga Darjeeling Darrang Datia Dausa Davanagere Deeg Dehradun Deogarh Deoghar Deoria Devbhumi Dwarka Dewas Dhalai Dhamtari Dhanbad Dhar Dharashiv Dharmapuri Dharwad Dhemaji Katihar Katni Kaushambi Kendrapara Kendujhar Keyi Panyor Khagaria Khairagarh-Chhuikhadan-Gandai Khairthal-Tijara Khammam Khandwa (East Nimar) Khargone (West Nimar) Khawzawl Kheda Kheri Khordha Khowai Khunti Kinnaur Kiphire Kishanganj Kishtwar Kodagu Koderma Kohima Kokrajhar Kolar Kolasib Kolhapur Kolkata Kollam Kondagaon Koppal Koraput Korba Korea Kota Kotputli-Behror Kottayam Kozhikode Kra Daadi Krishna Krishnagiri Kulgam Kullu Kumuram Bheem Asifabad Kupwara Kurnool Kurukshetra Kurung Kumey Kushinagar Lahaul And Spiti Lakhimpur Lakhisarai Lakshadweep District Lalitpur Latehar Latur Lawngtlai Leh Ladakh Leparada Lohardaga Lohit Longding Longleng Lower Dibang Valley Lower Siang Lower Subansiri Lucknow Ludhiana Lunglei MAUGANJ Madhepura Madhubani Madurai Mahabubabad Mahabubnagar Mahasamund Mahendragarh Mahesana Mahisagar Mahoba Mahrajganj Maihar Mainpuri Majuli Malappuram Malda Malerkotla Malkangiri Mamit Mancherial Mandi Mandla Mandsaur Mandya Munger Murshidabad Muzaffarnagar Muzaffarpur Mysuru Nabarangpur Nadia Nagaon Nagapattinam Nagarkurnool Nagaur Nagpur Nainital Nalanda Nalbari Nalgonda Namakkal Namchi Namsai Nanded Nandurbar Nandyal Narayanpet Narayanpur Manendragarh-Chirmiri-Bharatpur(M C B) Mangan Mansa Marigaon Mathura Mau Mayiladuthurai Mayurbhanj Medak Medchal Malkajgiri Meerut Meluri Mirzapur Moga Mohla-Manpur-Ambagarh Chouki Mokokchung Mon Moradabad Morbi Morena Mulugu Mumbai Mumbai Suburban Mungeli Narmada Narmadapuram Narsimhapur Nashik Navsari Nawada Nayagarh Neemuch New Delhi Nicobars Nirmal Niuland Niwari Nizamabad Noklak Noney North North 24 Parganas North And Middle Andaman North East North Garo Hills North Goa North Tripura North West Ntr Nuapada Nuh Pakke Kessang Pakur Pakyong Palakkad Palamu Palghar Pali Palnadu Palwal Panch Mahals Panchkula Pandhurna Panipat Panna Papum Pare Parbhani Parvathipuram Manyam Paschim Bardhaman Paschim Medinipur Pashchim Champaran Patan Pathanamthitta Pathankot Patiala Patna Pauri Garhwal Peddapalli Perambalur Peren Phalodi Phek Pherzawl Pilibhit Pithoragarh Poonch Porbandar Prakasam Pratapgarh Pratapgarh Prayagraj Puducherry Pudukkottai Pulwama Pune Purba Bardhaman Ranipet Ratlam Ratnagiri Rayagada Reasi Rewa Rewari Ri Bhoi Rohtak Rohtas Rudraprayag Rupnagar S.A.S Nagar Sabar Kantha Sagar Saharanpur Saharsa Sahebganj Saitual Sakti Salem Salumbar Samastipur Samba Purba Medinipur Purbi Champaran Puri Purnia Purulia Rae Bareli Raichur Raigad Raigarh Raipur Raisen Rajanna Sircilla Rajgarh Rajkot Rajnandgaon Rajouri Rajsamand Ramanagara Ramanathapuram Ramban Ramgarh Rampur Ranchi Ranga Reddy Sambalpur Sambhal Sangareddy Sangli Sangrur Sant Kabir Nagar Saraikela Kharsawan Saran Sarangarh-Bilaigarh Satara Satna Sawai Madhopur Sehore Senapati Seoni Sepahijala Serchhip Shahdara Shahdol Shahid Bhagat Singh Nagar Shahjahanpur Shajapur Shamator Shamli Sheikhpura Sheohar Sheopur Shi Yomi Shimla Shivamogga Shivpuri Shopian Shrawasti Siaha Siang Siddharthnagar Siddipet Sidhi Sikar Simdega Sindhudurg Singrauli Sirmaur Sirohi Sirsa Sitamarhi Sitapur Sivaganga Sivasagar Siwan Solan Solapur Sonbhadra Sonepur Sonipat Sonitpur Soreng South South 24 Parganas South Andamans South East South Garo Hills South Goa South Salmara Mancachar South Tripura South West South West Garo Hills South West Khasi Hills Sri Muktsar Sahib Sri Potti Sriramulu Nellore Sri Sathya Sai Srikakulam Srinagar Sukma Sultanpur Sundargarh Supaul Surajpur Surat Surendranagar Surguja Suryapet Tamenglong Tamulpur Tapi Tarn Taran Tawang Tehri Garhwal Tengnoupal Tenkasi Thane Thanjavur The Nilgiris Theni Thiruvallur Thiruvananthapuram Thiruvarur Thoothukkudi Thoubal Thrissur Tikamgarh Tinsukia Tirap Tiruchirappalli Tirunelveli Tirupathur Tirupati Tiruppur Tiruvannamalai Tonk Tseminyu Tuensang Tumakuru Udaipur Udalguri Udham Singh Nagar Udhampur Udupi Ujjain Ukhrul Warangal Wardha Washim Wayanad West West Garo Hills West Godavari West Jaintia Hills West Kameng West Karbi Anglong West Khasi Hills West Siang West Singhbhum West Tripura Wokha Y.S.R. Yadadri Bhuvanagiri Yadgir Yamunanagar Yavatmal Zunheboto Umaria Una Unakoti Unnao Upper Siang Upper Subansiri Uttar Bastar Kanker Uttar Dinajpur Uttara Kannada Uttarkashi Vadodara Vaishali Valsad Varanasi Vellore Vidisha Vijayanagara Vijayapura Vikarabad Viluppuram Virudhunagar Visakhapatnam Vizianagaram Wanaparthy Court for the District of Columbia, which granted a preliminary injunction after concluding IEEPA did not authorize the tariffs. In V.O.S. Selections, a group of businesses and 12 states sued in the U.S. Court of International TradeInternational Trade International Commercial Arbitration - International Commercial Mediation - Investor-State Dispute Settlement - Electronic Commerce - International Sale of Goods (CISG) and Related Transactions - Micro, Small, and Medium-sized Enterprises - Insolvency - Security Interests - Online Dispute Resolution - International Payments - Procurement and Public-Private Partnerships - International Transport of Goods. (CIT), which ruled in their favor, a decision affirmed by the Federal Circuit sitting en banc. The Supreme Court granted certiorari before judgment in the D.C. Circuit case and consolidated it with the Federal Circuit case to resolve the critical legal question.

Chief JusticeJustice δικαιοσύνη > judicature ( δικαιοσύνη) > judge (δικαστής / κριτής). The whole purpose of Plato`s Republic is to search for Justice. The purpose of Justice is to establish a perfect State. The State of happiness (ευτυχία) Roberts, delivering the opinionOpinion A judge's written explanation of a decision of the court. In an appeal, multiple opinions may be written. The court’s ruling comes from a majority of judges and forms the majority opinion. A dissenting opinion disagrees with the majority because of the reasoning and/or the principles of law on which the decision is based. A concurring opinion agrees with the end result of the court but offers further comment possibly because they disagree with how the court reached its conclusion. of the Court with respect to Parts I, II-A-1, and II-B, grounded the decision in constitutional first principles. The Court emphasized that Article I, Section 8 of the ConstitutionConstitution The Constitution encompasses the global system of rules governing constitutional authority. Simply reading selected provisions of the written text may be misleading. Understanding the underlying principles, such as federalism, democracy, constitutionalism, the rule of law, and respect for minorities, is crucial. Democratic institutions must allow for ongoing discussion and evolution, reflected in the right of participants to initiate constitutional change. This right entails a reciprocal duty to engage in discussions. Democracy involves more than majority rule, existing within the context of other constitutional values. Therefore, a profound understanding of these principles informs our appreciation of constitutional rights and obligations. Read more vests in Congress the exclusive power “To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises.” Tariffs, the Court noted, are “very clear[ly]… a branch of the taxing power.” The Framers, having fought a revolution against “taxation without representation,” gave “Congress alone… access to the pockets of the peopleMen Ανθρωποι (People), a woman (γυναίκα), Man (Ανδρας) > Adama, Manu > No proof to establish that due to mutation a monkey turned into a human being.,” reserving no part of this power for the Executive Branch during peacetime. The Government conceded this point, relying entirely on IEEPA as its source of authority.

The Court’s textual analysis of IEEPA was dispositive. It observed that the statute grants the President specific powers to “investigate, block… regulate, direct and compel, nullify, void, prevent or prohibit” importation. Notably absent from this list is any mention of “tariffs” or “duties.” The Court found that the power to “regulate… importation” could not fill this void. Relying on dictionary definitions, it stated that “regulate” means to “fix, establish, or control; to adjust by rule… to subject to governing principles or laws.” While broad, this definition does not naturally encompass taxation. The Court highlighted a crucial point: the U.S. Code is replete with statutes granting the Executive the power to “regulate,” yet the Government could not identify a single other instance where that power was understood to include the power to tax. Congress’s own drafting practices confirm this distinction; when it intends to grant tariff authority, it does so with explicit terms like “duty” or “tariff” and, significantly, imposes strict limits on duration, amount, and procedural prerequisites—limits entirely absent in the President’s interpretation of IEEPA.

The Court also applied the “major questions doctrine,” a principle of statutory interpretation requiring “clear congressional authorization” for executive actions of vast “economic and political significance.” The Court found this case to be a quintessential example. The asserted power to impose “unbounded tariffs” of unlimited duration on any product from any country represents a “transformative expansion” of presidential authority. It noted that in IEEPA’s nearly 50-year history, no president had ever invoked it to impose tariffs, a “lack of historicalHistorical Old or ancient facts, which could be verified, are recorded after following a system. 'In the beginning was God' is a faith statement, not a historical Fact. Itihas (iti-ha-asa) in Sanskrit means it was there or as it existed, which is part of Smriti Parampara, verified facts, and Puranas are a collection of old stories of the vedic nation, which can not be verified, but they are with the people and recorded in books without verification. precedent” that is a “telling indication” the power does not exist. The economic stakes, with the Government touting potential impacts in the trillions of dollars, further underscore the need for clear authorization. The Court rejected argumentsArguments It is not quarreling. It can be divided into Deductive, inductive, and conductive > Functional includes include: “because”, “since”, “for”, and “as”; typical conclusion indicators include “therefore”, “thus”, “hence”, and “so”. पंच अवयव तर्कः प्रतिज्ञा हेतू उदाहरणम् निगमनम् अवयवाः > premises to conclusion or conclusion to premises to Proof something. Proof is a derivation of a conclusion from premises through a valid argument. for a foreign-affairs exception to the doctrine, noting that the Framers explicitly gave the tariff power to “Congress alone” despite its obvious foreign policy implications.

Justice Kagan, joined by Justices Sotomayor and Jackson, concurred in the judgment, agreeing IEEPA does not authorize tariffs, but argued the Court could reach this result using ordinary tools of statutory interpretation without invoking the major questions doctrine. Justice Jackson also filed a separate concurring opinion, emphasizing that the legislative history of IEEPA and its predecessor, the Trading with the Enemy Act (TWEA), confirms Congress intended the “regulate… importation” power to be a tool for freezing foreign assets, not imposing tariffs.

The dissent, authored by Justice Kavanaugh and joined by Justices Thomas and Alito, argued vigorously that the majority’s decision is contrary to text, history, and precedent. The dissent contended that the power to “regulate… importation” has always been understood to include tariffs, citing dictionary definitions, historical practice dating back to the Founding, and early Supreme Court cases like Gibbons v. Ogden. It placed heavy reliance on the 1971 Nixon tariffs, which were upheld under IEEPA’s predecessor statute (TWEA) based on identical language, and on the Court’s 1976 decision in Federal Energy Administration v. Algonquin SNG, Inc., which held that a statute authorizing the President to “adjust the imports” permitted monetary exactions. The dissent argued that because these events occurred just before IEEPA’s enactment in 1977, Congress and the public would have clearly understood the statute to authorize tariffs. It also argued the major questions doctrine should not apply in the foreign affairs context, where Congress historically grants the President broad discretion. Justice Thomas filed a separate dissenting opinion, arguing that the power to impose duties on imports is not part of Congress’s “core legislative power” and is therefore freely delegable to the President without raising nondelegation concerns.

The Supreme Court’s decision has several key practical outcomes. First, it affirms the judgment of the Federal Circuit in V.O.S. Selections, declaring the IEEPA-based tariffs unlawful. Second, it vacates the D.C. district court’s judgment in Learning Resources and remands with instructions to dismiss for lack of jurisdiction, clarifying that challenges to tariff modifications fall under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Court of International Trade. The practical effect is that the billions of dollars collected under these tariffs may be subject to refund, a process acknowledged as potentially complex. Furthermore, the decision casts doubt on the durability of any trade agreements negotiated under the threat of these now-invalidated tariffs. Ultimately, the ruling stands as a powerful defense of congressional prerogative, affirming that the power to tax—including through tariffs—remains firmly with the people’s elected representatives in Congress, and cannot be assumed by the President from vague or general statutory language, even in a declared emergency. The President must now, if he wishes to pursue similar tariffs, navigate the specific procedural and substantive requirements of other trade statutes like Section 232 of the Trade Expansion Act or Section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974.

21st February 2026

Case Meta

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES

LEARNING RESOURCES, INC., ET AL. v. TRUMP,
PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATESUnited States Britain's American colonies broke with the mother country in 1776 and were recognized as the new nation of the United States of America following the Treaty of Paris in 1783. During the 19th and 20th centuries, 37 new states were added to the original 13 as the nation expanded across the North American continent and acquired a number of overseas possessions. The two most traumatic experiences in the nation's history were the Civil War (1861-65) and the Great Depression of the 1930s. Buoyed by victories in World Wars I and II and the end of the Cold War in 1991, the US remains the world's most powerful nation state., ET AL.
CERTIORARI BEFORE JUDGMENT TO THE UNITED STATES
COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA CIRCUIT
No. 24–1287. Argued November 5, 2025—Decided February 20, 2026